From the aCentre for Health Evaluation and Outcome Sciences, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

bBritish Columbia Centre on Substance Use, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

cDepartment of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

dDepartment of Family Medicine and Emergency Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

eDepartment of Epidemiology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA

fDepartment of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

gSchool of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

hAddiction Medicine Section, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR

iDepartment of Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

jDepartment of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

kFaculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

lDepartment of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

mDepartment of Economics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

nDepartment of Public Health, Health Services Research, and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics, and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria

oDepartment of Health Policy and Management, Center for Health Decision Science, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA

pDepartment of Radiology, Program on Cardiovascular Research, Institute for Technology Assessment, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.

Submitted December 15, 2022; accepted November 21, 2023

Supported by Health Canada Substance Use and Addictions Program award no. 1819-HQ-000036 and NIH/NIDA RO1-DA050629. The funding source was independent of the design of this study and did not have any role during its execution, analyses, interpretation of the data, writing, or decision to submit results. All authors had full access to the results in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and accuracy of analysis.

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Supplemental digital content is available through direct URL citations in the HTML and PDF versions of this article (www.epidem.com).

Study protocol and statistical code are available from the corresponding author ([email protected]). The data are not available for replication under the information sharing plan between the research team and the British Columbia Ministry of Health. All inferences, opinions, and conclusions drawn in this study are those of the authors and do not reflect the opinions or policies of the Data Steward(s).

F.H. led the analysis, conducted literature review, and wrote the first and subsequent drafts. B.N. and F.H. conceptualized the study. J.E.M., F.H. and M.K. constructed the cohort. B.E. and B.N. reviewed and edited the first and subsequent drafts. P.B., J.B., S.G., P.G., M.E.K., P.T.K., T.L., M.L., L.M., R.W.P., K.S., H.S., U.S., E.S. and E.W. provided critical revisions to the manuscript. B.N. secured the funding.

Correspondence: Bohdan Nosyk, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, BLU 9706, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6. E-mail: [email protected].