Shin M, Besser LM, Kucik JE et al (2009) Prevalence of Down syndrome among children and adolescents in 10 regions of the United States. Pediatrics 124:1565–1571. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0745

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ball MJ, Nuttall K (1980) Neurofibrillary tangles, granulovacuolar degeneration, and neuron loss in down syndrome: quantitative comparison with Alzheimer dementia. Ann Neurol 7:462–465. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410070512

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Folin M, Baiguera S, Conconi MT et al (2003) The impact of risk factors of Alzheimer’s disease in the down syndrome. Int J Mol Med 11:267–270

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hof PR, Bouras C, Perl DP et al (1995) Age-related distribution of neuropathologic changes in the cerebral cortex of patients with Down’s syndrome quantitative regional analysis and comparison with Alzheimer’s disease. Arch Neurol 52:379–391

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Holland AJ, Hon J, Huppert FA, Stevens F (2000) Incidence and course of dementia in people with down’s syndrome: findings from a population-based study. J Intellect Disabil Res 44(Pt 2):138–146

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nadel L (2003) Down’s syndrome: a genetic disorder in biobehavioral perspective. Genes Brain Behav 2:156–166

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Rueda N, Flórez J, Martínez-Cué C (2012) Mouse models of down syndrome as a tool to unravel the causes of mental disabilities. Neural Plast. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/584071

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Davisson MT, Schmidt C, Akeson EC (1990) Segmental trisomy of murine chromosome 16: a new model system for studying Down syndrome. Prog Clin Biol Res 360:263–280

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gardiner K, Fortna A, Bechtel L, Davisson MT (2003) Mouse models of down syndrome: how useful can they be? comparison of the gene content of human chromosome 21 with orthologous mouse genomic regions. Gene 318:137–147

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Sturgeon X, Gardiner KJ (2011) Transcript catalogs of human chromosome 21 and orthologous chimpanzee and mouse regions. Mamm Genome 22:261–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00335-011-9321-y

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gardiner K, Davisson M (2000) The sequence of human chromosome 21 and implications for research into down syndrome. Genome Biol. https://doi.org/10.1186/gb-2000-1-2-reviews0002

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Holtzman DM, Santucci D, Kilbridge J et al (1996) Developmental abnormalities and age-related neurodegeneration in a mouse model of down syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:13333–13338

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Granholm AC, Sanders LA, Crnic LS (2000) Loss of cholinergic phenotype in basal forebrain coincides with cognitive decline in a mouse model of down’s syndrome. Exp Neurol 161:647–663. https://doi.org/10.1006/exnr.1999.7289

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Insausti AM, Megías M, Crespo D et al (1998) Hippocampal volume and neuronal number in Ts65Dn mice: a murine model of down syndrome. Neurosci Lett 253:175–178

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Ayberk Kurt M, Ceri Davies D, Kidd M et al (2000) Synaptic deficit in the temporal cortex of partial trisomy 16 (Ts65Dn) mice. Brain Res 858:191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(00)01984-3

Article  Google Scholar 

Belichenko PV, Masliah E, Kleschevnikov AM et al (2004) Synaptic structural abnormalities in the Ts65Dn mouse model of down Syndrome. J Comp Neurol 480:281–298. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.20337

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pérez-Cremades D, Hernández S, Blasco-Ibáñez JM et al (2010) Alteration of inhibitory circuits in the somatosensory cortex of Ts65Dn mice, a model for down’s syndrome. J Neural Transm 117:445–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-010-0376-9

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cooper JD, Salehi A, Delcroix JD et al (2001) Failed retrograde transport of NGF in a mouse model of Down’s syndrome: reversal of cholinergic neurodegenerative phenotypes following NGF infusion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:10439–10444. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.181219298

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hamlett ED, Boger HA, Ledreux A et al (2016) Cognitive impairment, neuroimaging, and Alzheimer neuropathology in mouse models of down syndrome HHS public access. Curr Alzheimer Res 13:35–52

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Bartus RT, Dean RL, Beer B, Lippa AS (1982) The cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction. Science 217:408–414. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7046051

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schliebs R, Arendt T (2006) The significance of the cholinergic system in the brain during aging and in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neural Transm 113:1625–1644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-006-0579-2

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Godridge H, Reynolds GP, Czudek C et al (1987) Alzheimer-like neurotransmitter deficits in adult down’s syndrome brain tissue. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 50:775–778. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.50.6.775

CAS  Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schneider C, Risser D, Kirchner L et al (1997) Similar deficits of central histaminergic system in patients with down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Neurosci Lett 222:183–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3940(97)13379-1

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Contestabile A, Ciani E, Contestabile A (2008) The place of choline acetyltransferase activity measurement in the “cholinergic hypothesis” of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurochem Res 33:318–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-007-9497-4

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Iulita MF, Do Carmo S, Ower AK et al (2014) Nerve growth factor metabolic dysfunction in down’s syndrome brains. Brain 137:860–872. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt372

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Salehi A, Delcroix JD, Belichenko PV et al (2006) Increased app expression in a mouse model of down’s syndrome disrupts NGF transport and causes cholinergic neuron degeneration. Neuron 51:29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2006.05.022

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sofroniew MV, Howe CL, Mobley WC (2001) Nerve growth factor signaling, neuroprotection, and neural repair. Annu Rev Neurosci 24:1217–1281. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1217

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Esbensen AJ (2010) Health conditions associated with aging and end of life of adults with down syndrome. Int Rev Res Ment Retard 39:107–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7750(10)39004-5

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Head E, Silverman W, Patterson D, Lott IT (2012) Aging and down syndrome. Curr Gerontol Geriatr Res. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/412536

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lott IT, Head E (2001) Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease: A link between development and aging. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.1025

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mulet M, Blasco-Ibáñez JM, Crespo C et al (2017) Early increased density of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) immunoreactive neurons in down syndrome. Folia Neuropathol. https://doi.org/10.5114/fn.2017.68582

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bellés M, Carbonell J, Blasco-Ibáñez JM et al (2019) Alterations in reelin and reelin receptors in down syndrome. NeuroReport 30:14–18. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0000000000001153

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Powers BE, Velazquez R, Kelley CM et al (2016) Attentional function and basal forebrain cholinergic neuron morphology during aging in the Ts65Dn mouse model of down syndrome. Brain Struct Funct 221:4337–4352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-015-1164-y

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu DP, Schmidt C, Billings T, Davisson MT (2003) Quantitative PCR genotyping assay for the Ts65Dn mouse model of down syndrome. Biotechniques 35:1170–1178

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Hernández S, Gilabert-Juan J, Blasco-Ibáñez JM et al (2012) Altered expression of neuropeptides in the primary somatosensory cortex of the down syndrome model Ts65Dn. Neuropeptides 46:29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npep.2011.10.002

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

West MJ, Abercrombie M, Baddeley AJ et al (1993) New stereological methods for counting neurons. Neurobiol Aging 14:275–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0197-4580(93)90112-O

CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nacher J, Alonso-Llosa G, Rosell D, McEwen B (2002) PSA-NCAM expression in the piriform cortex of the adult rat modulation by NMDA receptor antagonist administration. Brain Res 927:111–121

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Gundersen HJG, Jensen EBV, Kiêu K, Nielsen J (1999) The efficiency of systematic sampling in stereology: reconsidered. J Microsci 193:199–211. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2818.1999.00457.x

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Van Lieshout EM, Van der Heijden I, Hendriks WJ, Van der Zee CE (2001) A decrease in size and number of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons is paralleled by diminished hippocampal cholinergic innervation in mice lacking leukocyte common antigen-related protein tyrosine phosphatase activity. Neuroscience 102:833–841

Article  Google Scholar 

Guirado R, Sanchez-Matarredona D, Varea E et al (2012) Chronic fluoxetine treatment in middle-aged rats induces changes in the expression of plasticity-related molecules and in neurogenesis. BMC Neurosci.