Selkoe DJ, Hardy J (2016) The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease at 25 years. EMBO Mol Med 8:595–608. https://doi.org/10.15252/emmm.201606210

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Song C, Shi J, Zhang P, Zhang Y, Xu J, Zhao L, Zhang R, Wang H, Chen H (2022) Immunotherapy for Alzheimer’s disease: targeting β-amyloid and beyond. Transl Neurodegener 11:18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40035-022-00292-3

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rahman A, Hossen MA, Chowdhury MFI et al (2023) Aducanumab for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. Psychogeriatrics 23:512–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyg.12944

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cummings J, Zhou Y, Lee G, Zhong K, Fonseca J, Cheng F (2024) Alzheimer’s disease drug development pipeline: 2024. Alzheimers Dement (N Y) 10:e12465. https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12465

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lambert JC, Grenier-Boley B, Chouraki V et al (2010) Implication of the immune system in Alzheimer’s disease: evidence from genome-wide pathway analysis. J Alzheimers Dis 20:1107–1118. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2010-100018

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gjoneska E, Pfenning AR, Mathys H, Quon G, Kundaje A, Tsai LH, Kellis M (2015) Conserved epigenomic signals in mice and humans reveal immune basis of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 518:365–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14252

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Malik M, Parikh I, Vasquez JB, Smith C, Tai L, Bu G, LaDu MJ, Fardo DW, Rebeck GW, Estus S (2015) Genetics ignite focus on microglial inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Neurodegener 10:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13024-015-0048-1

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Efthymiou AG, Goate AM (2017) Late onset Alzheimer’s disease genetics implicates microglial pathways in disease risk. Mol Neurodegener 12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13024-017-0184-x

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sudwarts A, Thinakaran G (2023) Alzheimer’s genes in microglia: a risk worth investigating. Mol Neurodegener 18:90. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13024-023-00679-4

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ousman SS, Kubes P (2012) Immune surveillance in the central nervous system. Nat Neurosci 15:1096–1101. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3161

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Miao J, Ma H, Yang Y, Liao Y, Lin C, Zheng J, Yu M, Lan J (2023) Microglia in Alzheimer’s disease: pathogenesis, mechanisms, and therapeutic potentials. Front Aging Neurosci 15:1201982. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1201982

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang Y, Zheng J (2020) Functions of immune checkpoint molecules beyond immune evasion. Adv Exp Med Biol 1248:201–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3266-5_9

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baldanzi G (2022) Immune checkpoint receptors signaling in T cells. Int J Mol Sci 23:3529. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23073529

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hansen DV, Hanson JE, Sheng M (2018) Microglia in Alzheimer’s disease. J Cell Biol 217:459–472. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201709069

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fujikawa R, Tsuda M (2023) The functions and phenotypes of microglia in Alzheimer’s disease. Cells 12:1207. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12081207

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Muraoka S, DeLeo AM, Sethi MK et al (2020) Proteomic and biological profiling of extracellular vesicles from Alzheimer’s disease human brain tissues. Alzheimers Dement 16:896–907. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12089

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Keren-Shaul H, Spinrad A, Weiner A et al (2017) A unique microglia type associated with restricting development of Alzheimer’s disease. Cell 169:1276-1290.e17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2017.05.018

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Olah M, Menon V, Habib N et al (2020) Single cell RNA sequencing of human microglia uncovers a subset associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Commun 11:6129. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19737-2

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang H (2021) Microglia heterogeneity in Alzheimer’s disease: Insights from single-cell technologies. Front Synaptic Neurosci 13:773590. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsyn.2021.773590

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Prater KE, Green KJ, Mamde S et al (2023) Human microglia show unique transcriptional changes in Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Aging 3:894–907. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43587-023-00424-y

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Condello C, Yuan P, Schain A, Grutzendler J (2015) Microglia constitute a barrier that prevents neurotoxic protofibrillar Aβ42 hotspots around plaques. Nat Commun 6:6176. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7176

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fruhwürth S, Zetterberg H, Paludan SR (2024) Microglia and amyloid plaque formation in Alzheimer’s disease - evidence, possible mechanisms, and future challenges. J Neuroimmunol 390:578342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2024.578342

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guo H, Zhao Z, Zhang R, Chen P, Zhang X, Cheng F, Gou X (2019) Monocytes in the peripheral clearance of amyloid-β and Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 68:1391–1400. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-181177

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yan P, Kim KW, Xiao Q et al (2022) Peripheral monocyte-derived cells counter amyloid plaque pathogenesis in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Invest 132:e152565. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI152565

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Munoz-Castro C, Mejias-Ortega M, Sanchez-Mejias E et al (2023) Monocyte-derived cells invade brain parenchyma and amyloid plaques in human Alzheimer’s disease hippocampus. Acta Neuropathol Commun 11:31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-023-01530-z

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Monsonego A, Maron R, Zota V, Selkoe DJ, Weiner HL (2001) Immune hyporesponsiveness to amyloid β-peptide in amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice: implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:10273–10278. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.191118298

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hickman SE, Allison EK, El Khoury J (2008) Microglial dysfunction and defective β-amyloid clearance pathways in aging Alzheimer’s disease mice. J Neurosci 28:8354–8360. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0616-08.2008

Article