Akiyama, M., Alshehri, W., Yoshimoto, K. & Kaneko, Y. T follicular helper cells and T peripheral helper cells in rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 82, 1371–1381 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giesecke, C. et al. Simultaneous presence of non- and highly mutated keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH)-specific plasmablasts early after primary KLH immunization suggests cross-reactive memory B cell activation. J. Immunol. 200, 3981–3992 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giesecke, C. et al. Tissue distribution and dependence of responsiveness of human antigen-specific memory B cells. J. Immunol. 192, 3091–3100 (2014).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dorner, T., Giesecke, C. & Lipsky, P. E. Mechanisms of B cell autoimmunity in SLE. Arthritis Res. Ther. 13, 243 (2011).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hiepe, F. & Radbruch, A. Plasma cells as an innovative target in autoimmune disease with renal manifestations. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 12, 232–240 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jenks, S. A. et al. Distinct effector B cells induced by unregulated toll-like receptor 7 contribute to pathogenic responses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunity 52, 203 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cancro, M. P. Age-associated B cells. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 38, 315–340 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Law, C. et al. Interferon subverts an AHR-JUN axis to promote CXCL13+ T cells in lupus. Nature 631, 857–866 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tsokos, G. C. Systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 2110–2121 (2011).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jenks, S. A., Cashman, K. S., Woodruff, M. C., Lee, F. E. & Sanz, I. Extrafollicular responses in humans and SLE. Immunol. Rev. 288, 136–148 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Reddy, V., Jayne, D., Close, D. & Isenberg, D. B-cell depletion in SLE: clinical and trial experience with rituximab and ocrelizumab and implications for study design. Arthritis Res. Ther. 15, S2 (2013).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Odendahl, M. et al. Disturbed peripheral B lymphocyte homeostasis in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Immunol. 165, 5970–5979 (2000).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jacobi, A. M. et al. Correlation between circulating CD27high plasma cells and disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 1332–1342 (2003).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jenks, S. A. et al. Distinct effector B cells induced by unregulated toll-like receptor 7 contribute to pathogenic responses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunity 49, 725–739.e726 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rubtsova, K., Rubtsov, A. V., Cancro, M. P. & Marrack, P. Age-associated B cells: a T-bet-dependent effector with roles in protective and pathogenic immunity. J. Immunol. 195, 1933–1937 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rincon-Arevalo, H. et al. Impaired humoral immunity to SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 vaccine in kidney transplant recipients and dialysis patients. Sci. Immunol. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.abj1031 (2021).

Szelinski, F. et al. Plasmablast-like phenotype among antigen-experienced CXCR5-CD19low B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol. 74, 1556–1568 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Caielli, S., Wan, Z. & Pascual, V. Systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis: interferon and beyond. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 41, 533–560 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dorner, T. & Lipsky, P. E. Beyond pan-B-cell-directed therapy – new avenues and insights into the pathogenesis of SLE. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 12, 645–657 (2016).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferreira-Gomes, M. et al. Recruitment of plasma cells from IL-21-dependent and IL-21-independent immune reactions to the bone marrow. Nat. Commun. 15, 4182 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hutloff, A. et al. Involvement of inducible costimulator in the exaggerated memory B cell and plasma cell generation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 3211–3220 (2004).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weissenberg, S. Y. et al. Identification and characterization of post-activated B cells in systemic autoimmune diseases. Front. Immunol. 10, 2136 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schrezenmeier, E. et al. Postactivated B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus: update on translational aspects and therapeutic considerations. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 31, 175–184 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Scofield, R. H. & Lewis, V. M. Is X chromosome inactivation a cause or effect of SLE? Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 20, 599–600 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wahren-Herlenius, M. & Dorner, T. Immunopathogenic mechanisms of systemic autoimmune disease. Lancet 382, 819–831 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gemmati, D. et al. COVID-19 and individual genetic susceptibility/receptivity: role of ACE1/ACE2 genes, immunity, inflammation and coagulation. Might the double X-chromosome in females be protective against SARS-CoV-2 compared to the single X-chromosome in males? Int. J. Mol. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21103474 (2020).

Scully, E. P., Haverfield, J., Ursin, R. L., Tannenbaum, C. & Klein, S. L. Considering how biological sex impacts immune responses and COVID-19 outcomes. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 20, 442–447 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Moisini, I. et al. The Yaa locus and IFN-α fine-tune germinal center B cell selection in murine systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Immunol. 189, 4305–4312 (2012).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Scofield, R. H. et al. Klinefelter’s syndrome (47,XXY) in male systemic lupus erythematosus patients: support for the notion of a gene-dose effect from the X chromosome. Arthritis Rheum. 58, 2511–2517 (2008).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dou, D. R. et al. Xist ribonucleoproteins promote female sex-biased autoimmunity. Cell 187, 733–749.e16 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Souyris, M. et al. TLR7 escapes X chromosome inactivation in immune cells. Sci. Immunol. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.aap8855 (2018).

Brown, G. J. et al. TLR7 gain-of-function genetic variation causes human lupus. Nature 605, 349–356 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Huret, C. et al. Altered X-chromosome inactivation predisposes to autoimmunity. Sci. Adv. 10, eadn6537 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Graham, R. R. et al. Specific combinations of HLA-DR2 and DR3 class II haplotypes contribute graded risk for disease susceptibility and autoantibodies in human SLE. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 15, 823–830 (2007).