Parent’s approaches and behaviors towards their children create an emotional environment in which the child is growing up. Mental health problems are not only related to parental psychopathology but also closely related to parenting practices and the parent–adolescent relationship [16]. The aim of the current study was to assess children’s and adolescents’ mental health in relation to parenting styles.

Regarding socio-demographic characteristics of the studied parents and their children

The results of the current study revealed that three-quarters of the studied parents were aged from 20 to less than 40 years with a mean of age 37.29(6.46) years and three-fifths were female. As well as about half of the studied parents were postgraduated and about one quarter had a highly qualified education. In addition, most of them were married.

Similarly, Berengur et al. [17] found that mothers of children with ADHD had an average age of 40.57 years. 2.7% of them were single and the majority were married. In terms of education, about a quarter of mothers in the control group had a university degree. Only 10.8% had finished upper secondary education and less than one-fifth had finished primary education. Slightly more than half were from rural areas. This result was contradicted by other studies [18,19,20] reported that more than three-quarters of the studied samples lived in urban areas. This may be due to that more Egyptians are living in rural areas than in cities. Egypt’s urban population was at the level of 43% in 2023, while Egypt’s rural population was 67%. The urban population is projected to outnumber people living in rural areas for the first time in 2041 [21].

In this study, slightly more than half of the studied children were male and aged from 6 to less than 12 years with a mean of age 9.4 (3.8) years. These findings were matched with [20, 22, 23].

Regarding parenting style

The present study illustrated that two-thirds of the participating parents (66%) practice permissive parenting style and less than one-fifth of them (18%) were authoritative and (16%) were authoritarian. This may be due to the fact that, in Egypt, there are no mandatory programs about parenting and raising children neither before nor after marriage. Child rearing and discipline may need more training programs for parents about parenting and parenting practices. These programs must be a condition for membership, such as medical examinations before marriage and ensuring the mental health of both spouses.

In a study by Garcia et al. [24] that is in agreement with the current study result, the studied adolescents reported the permissive parenting style as the most common parenting style that parents practice with them. In contrast, the permissive was the least reported parenting style in other studies [25]. In addition, other studies [22, 23] found that the authoritative parenting style was the most common configuration for the whole study sample. Also, the findings of the present study were not in harmony with Yang and Zhao [26] who found that Chinese parents practice authoritarian parenting styles while only the high social classes practice the permissive parenting style.

Regarding mental health

The current results, it was found that the participating parents reported criteria for conduct disorder as the most common mental health problem, followed by criteria for ADHA, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, opposition defiant disorder, separation anxiety, and social phobia/social anxiety. In the same line with the present study results, a study conducted in Romania [27] mentioned conduct disorders as the most common, followed by attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Other studies [28] reported conduct disorders as the second most common followed by hyperactivity disorders. Also, another study [29] found that the most common diagnosis was ADHD.

National Healthcare Quality and Disparities [30] stated that attention deficit disorder was the most common mental health disorder diagnosed in children aged 3 to 17 in 2016–2019. Also, Karaer and Akdemir [31] mentioned that half of the control group had major depressive disorder, followed by anxiety disorders and disruptive behavior disorders. Seleem [32] found that the most prevalent diagnostic categories were depression, disruptive behavior disorders, and ADHD, while anxiety disorder was the least prevalent diagnosis.

Concerning the relationship between children-related characteristics and parenting style

The gender of parents played a significant role in determining the type of parenting style as there was a statistically significant relationship gender of parents and parenting style. It was found that there was no statistically significant relationship between the age and gender of the children and their parenting style in harmony with [33] who stated the same result. This may be due to the cultural changes and differences of the Egyptians. In difference with urban culture, in rural areas, there may be more fear and overprotection for girls which may be translated into an authoritative parenting style, while more flexibility for boys which may be translated into a permissive parenting style. In addition, the different cultures of Upper Egypt may be translated into authoritarian parenting styles regardless age or gender of the children.

Concerning relation between parent characteristics and total mental health score

The education of parents was the main predictor of mental health problems whereby children from families with higher-educated parents had a lower risk of developing mental health problems than their peers with low-educated parents [34]. This result was in agreement with the finding of the current study where there was a high statistically significant relation between parents' educational level and total mental health score as well as parenting styles. Parents with high educational levels may be more open-minded than those with low educational levels this result matched with [28].

The current study findings showed a statistically significant relationship between the total mental health score and marital status. This result was supported by [18, 34] who mentioned that living without both biological parents was linked to higher mental health problems and they attributed this to the timing and presence of caregiver’s relationship disruptions, parental psychopathology, single parenthood, and family stressors. Wallenborn et al. [35] stated that children with divorced parents are known to be more likely to experience behavioral problems; however, this association may manifest itself during specific stage of child’s development.

Concerning the relation between birth order and total mental health score, the present study found that there was a statistically significant relation between birth order and total mental health score. These results are supported by [36, 37]. While contradicted by [38] who found that birth order was not related to psychological distress or mental health problems in adult life. From the researchers’ point of view, the mental health of children may be affected by birth order depending on parents’ communication and collaboration. The first child may get more care than other siblings if parents are good at communicating and collaborating. while if they are not divorced the child may be neglected or get inconsistent parenting disciplines. Other opinions are in contrast with that as they see the first child cannot get more care than other siblings because of low parent experience in child rearing and discipline.

Parental stress has a negative impact on child-rearing. It can be a contributing factor for parents being insufficiently responsive and affectionate to their children. Many detrimental effects, like as aggressive and disruptive behaviors, social disengagement, low self-esteem, and a sense of rejection, can result from poor parenting [39]. According to Rakhshani et al. [40] when the parents face emotional challenges or stress in their daily life and without sufficient information about children rearing, their developmental stages, and psychological needs, children grow and establish their personality in unfavorable conditions.

The finding of the current study revealed that there was a high statistically significant relation between total mental health score and work stress reported by the participating parents. This result was supported by [17, 41]. This could be due to the daily life pressures, problems, and challenges faced by working mothers and fathers who spend a long period of time at work and return home full of fatigue, exhaustion, and negative energy that is unconsciously projected onto the children without spending a longer period of time with their children, especially, which negatively affects the mental health of children. Parents that are less distressed usually seem warm, more responsive, rational, and moderate in the form of discipline they use with children. The characteristics of children relating to such parenting practices include school success, high self-esteem, competent social skills, and the capacity to maintain a balance between conforming to parents and acquiring autonomy [39].

Regarding the relationship between total mental health score and parenting style

The finding of the current study revealed that there was a high statistically significant relation between parenting style and total mental health score. This result was supported by [32]. Also, Muraco et al. [42] reported that children and teenagers from authoritarian families characterized by high demands and low responses generally do well academically and do not engage in problem behavior; however, they also tend to have poor social skills, worse self-esteem, and greater rates of depression. While children and teenagers from permissive homes characterized by elevated levels of responsiveness as well as reduced levels of demandingness are at greater risk of engaging in problem behavior and doing poorly academically, they also tend to have stronger social skills, lower levels of depression, and higher self-esteem.

Authoritarian parenting has a positive association with children’s anxiety, depression, and other related psychological problems. It is also linked to avoidant interactions. Parents who utilize an authoritarian parenting style may cause children to lack psychological flexibility and maturity [43]. When compared to alternative parenting approaches, authoritative parenting has been linked to improved results, such as decreased levels of internalizing and externalizing issues in children of all ages [44].

When parents are sensitive to and supportive, their children learn to control and manage their emotions. Inadequate parenting has been found to cause children to simultaneously display higher levels of externalizing symptoms and internalizing symptoms [45]. Children who have unsupportive and uncooperative connections with their parents are more likely to experience depression. Positive parenting is characterized by cooperative and supportive connections between parents and children, which lower the likelihood of depression in children. Research indicates that children develop a negative cognitive style and a poor self-image from parents who demand who receive less warmth, acceptance, compliance, or an elevated level of criticism and rejection [46].