UNAIDS. AIDSinfo. Available from: http://aidsinfo.unaids.org. Accessed 27 Oct 2023.

Le Doare K, Bland R, Newell ML. Neurodevelopment in children born to HIV-infected mothers by infection and treatment status. Pediatrics. 2012;130(5):e1326–44.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bulterys MA, Njuguna I, Mahy M, Gulaid LA, Powis KM, Wedderburn CJ, et al. Neurodevelopment among children exposed to HIV and uninfected in sub-Saharan Africa. J Int AIDS Soc. 2023;26(Suppl 4):e26159.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aizire J, Sikorskii A, Ogwang LW, Kawalazira R, Mutebe A, Familiar-Lopez I, et al. Decreased growth among antiretroviral drug and HIV-exposed uninfected versus unexposed children in Malawi and Uganda. AIDS. 2020;34(2):215–25.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fowler MG, Aizire J, Sikorskii A, Atuhaire P, Ogwang LW, Mutebe A, et al. Growth deficits in antiretroviral and HIV-exposed uninfected versus unexposed children in Malawi and Uganda persist through 60 months of age. AIDS. 2022;36(4):573–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Benki-Nugent SF, Yunusa R, Mueni A, Laboso T, Tamasha N, Njuguna I, et al. Lower neurocognitive functioning in HIV-exposed uninfected children compared with that in HIV-unexposed children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2022;89(4):441–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Powis KM, Lebanna L, Schenkel S, Masasa G, Kgole SW, Ngwaca M, et al. Lower academic performance among children with perinatal HIV exposure in Botswana. J Int AIDS Soc. 2023;26 Suppl 4(4):e26165.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wedderburn CJ, Yeung S, Rehman AM, Stadler JAM, Nhapi RT, Barnett W, et al. Neurodevelopment of HIV-exposed uninfected children in South Africa: outcomes from an observational birth cohort study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2019;3(11):803–13.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chaudhury S, Williams PL, Mayondi GK, Leidner J, Holding P, Tepper V, et al. Neurodevelopment of HIV-exposed and HIV-unexposed uninfected children at 24 months. Pediatrics. 2017;140(4):e20170988.

Cassidy AR, Williams PL, Leidner J, Mayondi G, Ajibola G, Makhema J, et al. In utero efavirenz exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes in HIV-exposed uninfected children in Botswana. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(8):828–34.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ntozini R, Chandna J, Evans C, Chasekwa B, Majo FD, Kandawasvika G, et al. Early child development in children who are HIV-exposed uninfected compared to children who are HIV-unexposed: observational sub-study of a cluster-randomized trial in rural Zimbabwe. J Int AIDS Soc. 2020;23(5):e25456.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wedderburn CJ, Weldon E, Bertran-Cobo C, Rehman AM, Stein DJ, Gibb DM, et al. Early neurodevelopment of HIV-exposed uninfected children in the era of antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2022;6(6):393–408.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schnoll JG, Temsamrit B, Zhang D, Song H, Ming GL, Christian KM. Evaluating neurodevelopmental consequences of perinatal exposure to antiretroviral drugs: current challenges and new approaches. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2021;16(1):113–29.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wedderburn CJ, Evans C, Yeung S, Gibb DM, Donald KA, Prendergast AJ. Growth and neurodevelopment of HIV-exposed uninfected children: a conceptual framework. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2019;16(6):501–13.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lyall AE, Shi F, Geng X, Woolson S, Li G, Wang L, et al. Dynamic development of regional cortical thickness and surface area in early childhood. Cereb Cortex. 2015;25(8):2204–12.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gilmore JH, Knickmeyer RC, Gao W. Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2018;19(3):123–37.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McHenry MS, Balogun KA, McDonald BC, Vreeman RC, Whipple EC, Serghides L. In utero exposure to HIV and/or antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review of preclinical and clinical evidence of cognitive outcomes. J Int AIDS Soc. 2019;22(4):e25275.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tran LT, Roos A, Fouche JP, Koen N, Woods RP, Zar HJ, et al. White matter microstructural integrity and neurobehavioral outcome of HIV-exposed uninfected neonates. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(4):e2577.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yadav SK, Gupta RK, Hashem S, Nisar S, Azeem T, Bhat AA, et al. Brain microstructural changes support cognitive deficits in HIV uninfected children born to HIV infected mothers. Brain Behav Immun Health. 2020;2:100039.

Robertson FC, Holmes MJ, Cotton MF, Dobbels E, Little F, Laughton B, et al. Perinatal HIV infection or exposure is associated with low N-acetylaspartate and glutamate in basal ganglia at age 9 but not 7 years. Front Hum Neurosci. 2018;12:145.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bertran-Cobo C, Wedderburn CJ, Robertson FC, Subramoney S, Narr KL, Joshi SH, et al. A neurometabolic pattern of elevated myo-inositol in children who are HIV-exposed and uninfected: a South African birth cohort study. Front Immunol. 2022;13:800273.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jahanshad N, Couture MC, Prasitsuebsai W, Nir TM, Aurpibul L, Thompson PM, et al. Brain imaging and neurodevelopment in HIV-uninfected Thai children born to HIV-infected mothers. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015;34(9):e211–6.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wedderburn CJ, Groenewold NA, Roos A, Yeung S, Fouche J-P, Rehman AM, et al. Early structural brain development in infants exposed to HIV and antiretroviral therapy in utero in a South African birth cohort. J Int AIDS Soc. 2022;25(1):e25863.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ibrahim A, Warton FL, Fry S, Cotton MF, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL, et al. Maternal ART throughout gestation prevents caudate volume reductions in neonates who are HIV exposed but uninfected. Front Neurosci. 2023;17:1085589.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Williams PL, Yildirim C, Chadwick EG, Van Dyke RB, Smith R, Correia KF, et al. Association of maternal antiretroviral use with microcephaly in children who are HIV-exposed but uninfected (SMARTT): a prospective cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2020;7(1):e49–58.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Balogun K, Lenis MG, Cahill L, Mount H, Sled J, Serghides L, editors. Changes in brain volume and cognition in mice exposed in utero to ABC/3TC-ATV/RTV. Top Antivir Med; 2018.

Tardieu M, Brunelle F, Raybaud C, Ball W, Barret B, Pautard B, et al. Cerebral MR imaging in uninfected children born to HIV-seropositive mothers and perinatally exposed to zidovudine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26(4):695–701.

PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Leonard CM, Welcome SE, Kan E, Toga AW. Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and brain growth in normal children. J Neurosci. 2004;24(38):8223–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schnack HG, van Haren NE, Brouwer RM, Evans A, Durston S, Boomsma DI, et al. Changes in thickness and surface area of the human cortex and their relationship with intelligence. Cereb Cortex. 2015;25(6):1608–17.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stein DJ, Koen N, Donald KA, Adnams CM, Koopowitz S, Lund C, et al. Investigating the psychosocial determinants of child health in Africa: The Drakenstein Child Health Study. J Neurosci Methods. 2015;252:27–35.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zar HJ, Barnett W, Myer L, Stein DJ, Nicol MP. Investigating the early-life determinants of illness in Africa: the Drakenstein Child Health Study. Thorax. 2015;70(6):592–4.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zar HJ, Pellowski JA, Cohen S, Barnett W, Vanker A, Koen N, et al. Maternal health and birth outcomes in a South African birth cohort study. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(11):e0222399.

Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wedderburn CJ, Subramoney S, Yeung S, Fouche JP, Joshi SH, Narr KL, et al. Neuroimaging young children and associations with neurocognitive development in a South African birth cohort study. Neuroimage. 2020;219:116846.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pellowski JA, Wedderburn CJ, Stadler JAM, Barnett W, Stein DJ, Myer L, et al. Implementation of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) guidelines in South Africa: Outcomes from a population-based birth cohort study in Paarl. Western Cape BMJ Open. 2019;9(12):e033259.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Donald KA, Hoogenhout M, du Plooy CP, Wedderburn CJ, Nhapi RT, Barnett W, et al. Drakenstein Child Health Study (DCHS): investigating determinants of early child development and cognition. BMJ Paediatr Open. 2018;2(1):e000282.

Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bayley N. Bayley scales of infant and toddler development, Technical manual. 3rd ed. Bloomington: NCS Pearson Inc.; 2006.

Google Scholar 

Ballot DE, Ramdin T, Rakotsoane D, Agaba F, Davies VA, Chirwa T, et al. Use of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, to assess developmental outcome in infants and young children in an urban setting in South Africa. Int Sch Res Notices. 2017;2017:1631760.

Fischl B. FreeSurfer. NeuroImage. 2012;62(2):774–81.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Desikan RS, Segonne F, Fischl B, Quinn BT, Dickerson BC, Blacker D, et al. An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest. Neuroimage. 2006;31(3):968–80.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fischl B, Liu A, Dale AM. Automated manifold surgery: constructing geometrically accurate and topologically correct models of the human cerebral cortex. IEEE Trans Med Imaging. 2001;20(1):70–80.