Mauvais-Jarvis, F. et al. Sex and gender: modifiers of health, disease, and medicine. Lancet 396, 565–582 (2020).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Ortona, E., Pierdominici, M. & Rider, V. Editorial: sex hormones and gender differences in immune responses. Front. Immunol. 10, 1076 (2019).

Klein, S. L. & Flanagan, K. L. Sex differences in immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 16, 626–638 (2016).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Neyrolles, O. & Quintana-Murci, L. Sexual Inequality in Tuberculosis. PLoS Med. 6, e1000199 (2009).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Whitacre, C. C. Sex differences in autoimmune disease. Nat. Immunol. 2, 777–780 (2001).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Markle, J. G. & Fish, E. N. SeXX matters in immunity. Trends Immunol. 35, 97–104 (2014).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Ursin, R. L., Shapiro, J. R. & Klein, S. L. Sex-biased immune responses following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Trends Microbiol. 28, 952–954 (2020).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Furman, D. et al. Systems analysis of sex differences reveals an immunosuppressive role for testosterone in the response to influenza vaccination. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 869–874 (2014).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Fink, A. L., Engle, K., Ursin, R. L., Tang, W.-Y. & Klein, S. L. Biological sex affects vaccine efficacy and protection against influenza in mice. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 12477–12482 (2018).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Engler, R. J. M. et al. Half- vs full-dose trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (2004-2005): age, dose, and sex effects on immune responses. Arch. Intern. Med. 168, 2405–2414 (2008).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Angele, M. K., Pratschke, S., Hubbard, W. J. & Chaudry, I. H. Gender differences in sepsis: cardiovascular and immunological aspects. Virulence 5, 12–19 (2014).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Hewagama, A., Patel, D., Yarlagadda, S., Strickland, F. M. & Richardson, B. C. Stronger inflammatory/cytotoxic T-cell response in women identified by microarray analysis. Genes Immun. 10, 509–516 (2009).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Jacobsen, H. & Klein, S. L. Sex differences in immunity to viral infections. Front. Immunol. 12, 720952 (2021).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Lepeytre, F. et al. Association of sex with risk of kidney graft failure differs by age. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 28, 3014–3023 (2017).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Zhu, Y., Shao, X., Wang, X., Liu, L. & Liang, H. Sex disparities in cancer. Cancer Lett. 466, 35–38 (2019).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Gubbels Bupp, M. R., Potluri, T., Fink, A. L. & Klein, S. L. The confluence of sex hormones and aging on immunity. Front. Immunol. 9, 1269 (2018).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Turner, J. R. Intestinal mucosal barrier function in health and disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 9, 799–809 (2009).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Klein, S. L., Hodgson, A. & Robinson, D. P. Mechanisms of sex disparities in influenza pathogenesis. J. Leukoc. Biol. 92, 67–73 (2012).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Robinson, D. P., Lorenzo, M. E., Jian, W. & Klein, S. L. Elevated 17β-estradiol protects females from influenza A virus pathogenesis by suppressing inflammatory responses. PLoS Pathog. 7, e1002149 (2011).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Foxman, B. The epidemiology of urinary tract infection. Nat. Rev. Urol. 7, 653–660 (2010).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Lipsky, B. A. Urinary tract infections in men. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Ann. Intern. Med. 110, 138–150 (1989).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Ingersoll, M. A. Sex differences shape the response to infectious diseases. PLoS Pathog. 13, e1006688 (2017).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hooton, T. M. et al. Perineal anatomy and urine-voiding characteristics of young women with and without recurrent urinary tract infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29, 1600–1601 (1999).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Lacerda Mariano, L. & Ingersoll, M. A. The immune response to infection in the bladder. Nat. Rev. Urol. 17, 439–458 (2020).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Shaikh, N., Morone, N. E., Bost, J. E. & Farrell, M. H. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: a meta-analysis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 27, 302–308 (2008).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Nuutinen, M. & Uhari, M. Recurrence and follow-up after urinary tract infection under the age of 1 year. Pediatr. Nephrol. Berl. Ger. 16, 69–72 (2001).

CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Ruben, F. L. et al. Clinical infections in the noninstitutionalized geriatric age group: methods utilized and incidence of infections. The Pittsburgh Good Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 141, 145–157 (1995).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Harper, M. & Fowlis, G. 3. Management of urinary tract infections in men. Trends Urol. Gynaecol. Sex. Health 12, 30–35 (2007).

Article  Google Scholar 

Kaye, D. Urinary tract infections in the elderly. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. 56, 209–220 (1980).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yoshikawa, T. T. Unique aspects of urinary tract infection in the geriatric population. Gerontology 30, 339–344 (1984).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Kohler, T. S., Yadven, M., Manvar, A., Liu, N. & Monga, M. The length of the male urethra. Int. Braz. J. Urol. 34, 451–454 (2008).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Albracht, C. D., Hreha, T. N. & Hunstad, D. A. Sex effects in pyelonephritis. Pediatr. Nephrol. Berl. Ger. 36, 507–515 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Lamminmäki, A. et al. Testosterone measured in infancy predicts subsequent sex-typed behavior in boys and in girls. Horm. Behav. 61, 611–616 (2012).

PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Fish, E. N. The X-files in immunity: sex-based differences predispose immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8, 737–744 (2008).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Olsen, N. J. & Kovacs, W. J. Gonadal steroids and immunity. Endocr. Rev. 17, 369–384 (1996).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Amenyogbe, E. et al. A review on sex steroid hormone estrogen receptors in mammals and fish. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2020, 5386193 (2020).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ober, C., Loisel, D. A. & Gilad, Y. Sex-specific genetic architecture of human disease. Nat. Rev. Genet. 9, 911–922 (2008).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

Johnson, C. C. Definitions, classification, and clinical presentation of urinary tract infections. Med. Clin. North Am. 75, 241–252 (1991).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Foxman, B. & Brown, P. Epidemiology of urinary tract infections: transmission and risk factors, incidence, and costs. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 17, 227–241 (2003).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Efstathiou, S. P. et al. Acute pyelonephritis in adults: prediction of mortality and failure of treatment. Arch. Intern. Med. 163, 1206–1212 (2003).

PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Nicolle, L. E., Friesen, D., Harding, G. K. & Roos, L. L. Hospitalization for acute pyelonephritis in Manitoba, Canada, during the period from 1989 to 1992; impact of diabetes, pregnancy, and aboriginal origin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22, 1051–1056 (1996).

CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Ki, M., Park, T., Choi, B. & Foxman, B. The epidemiology of acute pyelonephritis in South Korea, 1997-1999. Am. J. Epidemiol. 160, 985–993 (2004).

PubMed  Article