Sociodemographic attributes of informants in the study area

A total of 132 people participated in this study. Males made up 75.7% of the participants (n = 100), with females making up the remaining 24.2% (n = 32). Regarding the healing experience, the majority of participants (68.1%; n = 90) were categorized as general informants, with key informants coming in second at 31.8% (n = 42). The study included participants ranging in age from 18 to 85. With 51.5% (n = 68) of them falling into the 53–85 age group, the largest percentage was followed by the 36–52 age group with 31.1% (n = 41). Participants’ educational backgrounds varied from illiteracy to literate. It was discovered that 64.4% of the participants were illiterate (n = 85), with those who are literate coming in second at 35.6% (n = 47) (Table 2).

Table 2 Sociodemographic characteristics of respondentsMedicinal plants naming related to culture in the study area

The local people have a wealth of knowledge and cultural beliefs about the traditional healthcare system and other social issues. Most of the time, the peoples are able to identify the plants in their area by their native names. However, in certain cases, when it is difficult to find a precise synonym or colloquial name for a particular plant species (usually herbs) while the plant is still being used traditionally, either directly or indirectly, the names given to the medicinally significant plant species are based on the type of illness the plant was used to treat. For the Sheka people, any plant that has medicinal value and is named after the root word (the name of the health issue) and for which the plant is used as a remedy in their community is given the suffix “Atto” which denotes medication for a specific medical condition. In the same way, any health issue that is named with the suffix “Bewo” added to a specific body organ refers to that organ’s diseases which denotes illnesses or conditions affecting that particular body organ. The term Wame Bewo, which refers to ear disorders; The term “Yik’e Bewo” refers to back pain or spinal cord disease; Afe Bewo: referring to eye disorders; in addition to many other things, Shit’t’o Bewo means nose diseases. The term “Qewe Bewo” refers to Black leg diseases of livestock. Dingare Atto: a remedy for snake bites or snake poisoning. This name is consistent with the [12] report.

Diversity and distribution of medicinal plants in the study area

In the study area, 98 different species of medicinal plants from 81 genera and 45 families were found to be used to treat 16 livestock diseases and 36 human diseases. Of these 98 plant species, 74 (75.5%) were used as human medicines, 10 (10.2%) as livestock medicines, and 14 (14.2%) as human and livestock medicines (Table 3). This demonstrated that more medicinal plants were used to treat human illnesses than livestock diseases. This could be because people may not raise livestock in the area because it is mainly used for growing coffee rather than cereal crops. This discovery exceeds the 29, 63, 72, and 87 plant species reported in Ethiopia by[13, 17,18,19], respectively. In a similar vein, [20, 21] reported 42 and 55 plant species, respectively, in reports from other parts of the world. However, [10, 12, 22] reported that 266, 145, and 189 species of medicinal plants, respectively, were more than the number in the current study area. According to [13], the number of medicinal plants found in various study areas may vary depending on the vegetation type of the area, the number of informants, the time of data collection, and the duration and culture of the area. The local population’s dependence on traditional medicines is demonstrated by the prevalence of herbal remedies for human and animal illnesses in the study area. This dependence could be caused by things like the high price of modern drugs, the difficulty in accessing and using modern healthcare services, and the cultural acceptance of herbal remedies, which have also been noted in other parts of Ethiopia by [23, 24]. The Asteraceae and Solanaceae families were the most prevalent among the medicinal plants studied, with 11 and 8 species represented, respectively. They were followed by Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae, each with 6 species, and Cucurbitaceae and Rubiaceae, both with 5 species. Among these, the Asteraceae family stands out as the most significant contributor to the medicinal plant diversity in the area. This observation aligns with findings from other studies [12, 13, 70] conducted in various regions of Ethiopia, which also highlighted the prominence of medicinal plants within the Solanaceae and Asteraceae families. This trend may be attributed to the shared phytochemicals found in medicinal plants within the same taxonomic groups [25], suggesting that plants in the Asteraceae and Solanaceae families are likely rich in bioactive compounds that enhance their therapeutic properties. Conversely, some researchers [26, 27] argue that Asteraceae is more abundant than other plant families in Ethiopia’s flora regions. This conclusion is also consistent with reports from other countries worldwide [28, 29]. On the other hand, reports of the Amaranthaceae, and Apocynaceae families were common in other studies [30]. In terms of the number of taxa, this may be explained by the greater abundance and distribution of these plant families in the flora region[10, 13]. According to this research, people tend to favor readily available plant species as long as they are safe. In light of this, the study emphasizes the cultural and therapeutic significance of several plant families in traditional medicine practices, highlighting the need to learn more about their therapeutic qualities and put conservation measures in place to safeguard these priceless botanical resources.

Table 3 List of medicinal plants utilized for the treatment of humans and livestock diseasesHabitat of medicinal plants

Of the 98 medicinal plants that were identified, 71 (72.4%) were from the wild, 18 (18.3%) were from home gardens and the wild, 5 (5.1%) were from home gardens (HG) and 4 (4.1%) were from market. In order to treat human ailments, the results show that the locals get more medicinal plants from the wild vegetation than from their home gardens. Inormants stated that wild habitats are being negatively impacted by human activities, and as a result, they are decreasing in size due to the growing population pressure. They tried to grow the plants, but the informants stated that because the plants grew on the side of mountains and in areas with shade, they did not survive the soil types and climate. This is in line with most of Ethiopia’s previous research, including studies by [31,32,33], as well as studies by [34, 35] elsewhere. The prevalence of medicinal plants in their natural habitats makes them vulnerable to various threats, including overexploitation [15, 44], deforestation, and habitat destruction [76]. Therefore, domesticating these plants is crucial for facilitating easier access and ensuring their long-term survival.

Life forms of medicinal plants

The results demonstrated that herbs with 44 species were highest reported palnt habit followed by, shrubs 25 species, tree 21 species, and climber 8 species used to treat illnesses (Fig. 3). The reason for finding a large number of herbal medicinal plant species uses in Yeki district could be related to the favorable climatic conditions such as year round high rain fall that the maintained varieties of plant species. This distribution could be attributed to the greater availability and abundance of herbs in the environment compared to shrubs and trees. Several scholars have also noted that herbs were the most commonly used growth habits for treating various human ailments[12, 13, 33, 36], both locally and globally[30, 37]. This trend could be seen as positive for plant conservation, as herbs have shorter growth cycles and require less space for cultivation compared to shrubd and trees. Thus, the consistent high levels of rainfall throughout the year create ideal conditions for the dominance of herbaceous medicinal plants in the Yeki District, making up more than half of the total species utilized and fostering a wide variety of plant species. In contrast, a larger number of studies have reported the use of shrubs and trees[22, 38,39,40] both locally and globally[35, 41,42,43]. This could be due to their annual availability and their ability to withstand drought and invasive alien species, making them suitable for widespread use[13, 22]. Furthermore, this suggests a variation in medicinal plant utilization due to differences in culture, agroecologies, topographic features, and the ease of access to the species[40]. As a result, the diverse range of medicinal plants, including herbaceous species in some areas and shrubs or trees in others, reflects the rich botanical resources available for medicinal purposes and the importance of preserving traditional knowledge for future generations.

Fig. 3

Life forms of medicinal plants

Parts of medicinal plants used

The study’s findings indicated that 10 specific parts of MPs were identified as the primary constituents utilized for addressing various health problems. The analysis of plant parts, based on the total frequency of citations by informants, demonstrated that leaves were the most commonly used plant part followed by roots, seeds, bark, stems, and latex (Fig. 4). The popularity of leaves, their ease of preparation, and the potency of their phytochemicals could all contribute to this preference. Although it is generally sustainable to use leaves for medicinal purposes, it is crucial to remember that excessive harvesting can weaken a plant and delay its reproductive processes. The findings of several researchers, including[13, 19, 38], as well as those from other countries [44,45,46], support this information. Other research, however, has shown that roots are more common in traditional medicine than other plant parts, stems, and entire plants. The work of several researchers, including[17, 47], and others worldwide, [34, 48, 49], supported this information. This could be since they stay underground even during protracted dry seasons; fresh roots are readily available all year round. However, medicinal plants may be in danger due to overharvesting of roots for therapeutic purposes and environmental damage brought on by agricultural growth. For example, in the Yeki district’s local markets, the root of Echinops kebericho Mesfin was highly prized. Similarly, research from other regions of Ethiopia and the world has shown that excessive use of root parts endangers medicinal plants[13, 34].

Fig. 4

Parts of medicinal plnats used

Traditional medicines preparation and forms used

Different approaches were utilized to create the traditional remedy, taking into account the nature of the ailments, as well as the condition and components of the MPs. The research findings highlighted that informants reported different modes of preparation for medicinal plants. Notably, the majority of plants were prepared by crushing, followed by concoction, powdering, and decoction (Fig. 5). Herbalists in the study area crush plant parts with common ingredients like honey, coffee, salt, and butter using simple methods and locally produced tools like mortars and pestles. For the patient, these additions enhance the remedy’s flavor and nutritional value. The Gamo people of Ethiopia, for example, have been known to use a similar practice in their traditional medicine, adding items like meat, honey, and butter to improve the nutritional value and taste of the remedies they make [14]. For instance, Vernonia amygdalina and Croton macrostachyus leaves are crushed, pounded, and combined when making remedies to treat intestinal parasites. Both locally and internationally, these results are consistent with those of [24, 50,51,52]. In order to protect these priceless resources for coming generations, it is imperative to support conservation initiatives and sustainable harvesting methods. Some of the remedies use a wide range of additives, including bread, milk, water, coffee, food, tea, salt, butter, honey, and sugar. Additives are essential for lowering the strength of the drugs, improving their taste, and easing their side effects. Some informants believe that using and combining some medicinal plants with food is better than taking them alone. For example, dry fruits of the Ficus sur are ground into a powder, mixed with honey, and taken orally to treat malaria. Similar findings were reported by [50, 53, 54]. Informants have reported a variety of skills related to herbal preparation in the data collection process regarding the preparation of medicine for the treatment of human ailments. Among these is the composition of plants, either alone or in combination. Herbalists also combine different species to increase the therapeutic potential of prepared remedies. The findings indicated that the majority of remedies (84.6%) were made from a single plant, while only 15.4% were made from a combination of plant species. These findings align with similar results reported by[51, 54, 55]. Plant parts are used by herbalists to prepare remedies under various circumstances. The result shows that 84.7% were used in fresh form, 9.2% in both forms and 6.1% in dry form. As patients arrive, they prefer to make remedies in a fresh form, and the majority of herbaceous species are typically used fresh. This could be the unimodal rainfall pattern that makes the study area’s plants evergreen throughout the year. Because the beneficial components of these species are retained during the drying process, local communities’ reliance on fresh plant parts can be explained by their perceived efficacy in therapy. However, there is a chance that these priceless medicinal plants will disappear due to this reliance on fresh plant materials[13, 31, 56].

Fig. 5

Mode of medicinal plants preparation

Routes of administration

With a variety of techniques used to maximize the therapeutic benefits of medicinal plants, routes of administration represent yet another aspect of traditional medicine. According to the study, these plants are used in a variety of ways in regional healthcare practices, from external applications to oral ingestion. Among these reports, the most common route of administration was oral, followed by dermal administration, and nasal (Fig. 6). Similar findings worldwide[30, 35, 57] and in Ethiopia [13, 25, 27] indicate that the oral route is the most common method of administering medicinal plant preparations. Both the prevalence of internal illness in the study area and the efficiency of oral and dermal methods in quickly interacting with pathogens’ physiology and boosting curative potency may be responsible for this preference. Because it is easier for patients to apply and has a lower potential for toxicity and absorption, dermal administration is preferred.

Fig. 6

Most cited route of administration

Dosage measurement and additives for medicinal plants

Traditional healers in the study area estimated and fixed the dosage of the medicine using a variety of units of measurement, including finger length for root and stem bark, pinch for powdered plant parts, numbers for leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers, and cup for decoction and infusion for plant parts. Although the healers believe that traditional medicines are effective, the measurements used to calculate dosages are not standardized, and the dosages are based on factors such as age, physical fitness, illness stage, pregnancy, and the presence or absence of any other diseases in addition to the disease being treated. This finding is aligns with the report of [10, 50, 58]. Participants in this study indicated that instances of diarrhea, vomiting, and internal inflammation were typically associated with an overdose of orally administered medications. Findings from similar studies [13, 66, 76] also highlighted the effects of dosage related to oral prescriptions. This could be attributed to the heightened sensitivity of internal body organs in comparison to external tissues. In the current study area, herbal remedies were utilized both with and without additives. Notably, most medicinal plants were used without any additional ingredients. However, certain herbal medicines did incorporate additives, such as water, milk, coffee, honey, meat, bulla locally made from Enset ventricosum, and “Tella” (a local beer). Informants in the current study indicated that additives were considered essential for enhancing the healing efficacy of remedies, a