The results obtained indicate that meliponiculture is practiced to a greater extent by men (66.1%), compared to women (33.9%), which is consistent with Pat-Fernández et al. [16], who reported that in the Petenes Biosphere Reserve (PBR), Campeche, the proportion of men who practice meliponiculture is 80%, higher compared to women, with a participation level of 20%. Likewise, González-Acereto et al. [9] based on their study carried out in Yucatán, reported a higher percentage of men (78%) compared to women (22%), who practice beekeeping. This greater proportion of men who practice meliponiculture is also recorded in other states of Mexico, for example, Chan-Mutul et al. [23] reported that 73% are men, 22% women, and 5% is indistinct between men and women for Tabasco. The above data is based on the greater availability of economic resources on the part of men and their experience in productive field activities. On the other hand, women do not have sufficient economic resources and also have their family obligation of child children and their household responsibilities.

According to Redfield and Villa Rojas [24] in the Mayan communities in Mexico, the meliponiculturing men were in charge of the production of hive products that were used in religious practices. The honey used for the ceremonial drink is known as “balché” or “saka” (in Maya) along with wax for the candles for the purpose of religious offerings. It is also used in the Ch'a Cháak ceremony (in Maya); which is a formal divine request for adequate rainfall that is made every year in the YP to ensure the benevolence of the rain deities (Yuum Cháak) in order to have the water necessary for human survival [25]. In this ceremony, “balché” and “saká” were consumed, and only men participated [26]. This has also been observed in beekeeping, a family activity under the control of a male figure, since men generally carry out the activities in the apiary; and the women participate in the production of wax and in the diversification of beehive products.

Although meliponiculture is a male-dominated activity, a gradual increase in the participation of women has been observed. In this study, a higher percentage of women's participation was recorded (33.9%) when compared to other studies in the region, 22% in González-Acereto et al. [9] and 20% in Pat-Fernández et al. [16]. According to Parra-Arguello et al. [27], the practice and participation of women in meliponiculture has increased due to the benefits derived from income generation. Previously, before dedicating themselves to this activity, they only had the income that was provided by their spouses and other activities such as handicrafts (such as embroidery and making typical garments), which were not sufficient to cover family expenses. In this context, Martínez-Vázquez et al. [28] stated that beekeeping can be practiced on the plot of land, since the bee is not dangerous because it lacks a functional sting. In addition, the increase in women's participation in agricultural activities coincides with what has been reported by the Observatorio de Género de América Latina y el Caribe “Gender Observatory of Latin America and the Caribbean” [29], since the activity rate of women in rural areas has increased from 32.4 to 46.4% between the period between 1990 and 2005.

The age difference between men (47 years) and women (38 years) observed in the present study was 9 years, which coincides with González-Acereto et al. [9] for Yucatán; where they reported that average age of men and women as 56 and 42 years, respectively, with a difference of 14 years. It is also consistent with Martínez-Vázquez et al. [28] for study on beekeeping activity, in the town of Suc Tuc (Hopelchén, Campeche); where the male beekeepers have been reported on an average about 54 years old and the women around 44 years. However, it differs from what was found by Pat-Fernández et al. [16] for PBR (Calkiní, Campeche); they recorded an average age of 63 years in men and 62 years in women meliponiculturists; this apparent similarity in age may be due to the focused origin of the informants. Recently, Uicab-Campos et al. [30] reported an average age of 44 years for a group of meliponiculturers in Yucatán, with a minimum age of 23 and maximum of 67 years. In contrast with what was observed, Martínez-Vázquez et al. [28] indicated that women enter the beekeeping activity at an older age than men, because they no longer have the responsibility for the care and education of their children.

In the years of schooling in this study, no differences were observed between men and women. These results are lower than those reported by INEGI [31] for the national level, which, according to the 2020 Census, shows that the average years of schooling in men were 9.84 years and 9.64 in women. In the YP, studies that indicate the schooling of meliponiculturists between men and women are scarce; however, Pat-Fernández et al. [16] reported that an average schooling of 4.1 years for the PBR, without differentiating between men and women. The results indicate that beekeeping is an activity dominated by men with low levels of education. On the other hand, Uicab-Campos et al. [30] interviewed 30 beekeepers in Yucatan and reported that 16.7% had not completed their primary education or had some level of illiteracy. Approximately 16.7% completed their primary studies, 36% had completed secondary school, 23% had completed high school or a technical degree and 6.7% had completed bachelor's level studies. Similarly, Parra-Arguello et al. [27] interviewed 15 female meliponiculturists in the municipality of Maní (Yucatán), reporting that 12% had not completed their studies at the primary level, 37% had completed primary school, 38% had completed secondary school and 13% had completed with bachelor's degree. The level of education is an important indicator of the level of knowledge that are essential for improving the production process.

The average number of hives per meliponicultor was higher in men, with differences observed between both groups (Fig. 3). These results differ from those reported by Uicab-Campos et al. [30], who found eight colonies on average for a group of female meliponiculturists in Yucatán. For their part, González-Acereto et al. [9] found on average 11 colonies per meliponiculturist in Yucatán. Both authors did not indicate the difference in the number of colonies owned by men and women.

In case of honey production per colony per year, male meliponiculturists obtained 0.620 kg of honey and women 0.600 kg of honey; with no differences observed between both groups. The production volume recorded here is lower than that reported by González-Acereto et al. [9] and Quezada Euán et al. [8], with a honey production per colony per year of more than 2 kg. It is also lower when compared to Pat-Fernández et al. [16] who reported an average of 1.02 kg of honey per colony per year for the PBR. Recently, Magaña-Magaña et al. [32] reported for Yucatán, honey production of 0.568 kg per colony per year for a production system using technologically advanced boxes and, for a mixed system (technologically advanced boxes and hobones), a production of 0.635 kg per colony per year. The results presented here in relation to the previous studies show a reduction in honey production by the M. beecheii in the YP; it is important to consider that honey production depends on the floristic diversity surrounding the apiary [33], such as topography, climate, seasonality and density of flowering, location of the apiary, together with uncontrollable factors such as temperature, relative humidity, soil type, wind, sunlight, influence, etc. [34, 35].

The process of honey production and extraction is carried out entirely by women in beekeeping, as it does not require excessive use of physical strength, as occurs in beekeeping with the handling of supers in colonies made up of three bodies (honey supers), the movement for loading and unloading of drums with honey (about 300 kg) or other activities of the beekeeping production process. These differences in the management of the bee colony, coupled with the fact that it is traditionally located in the home's yard, allow women to participate in this primary activity more successfully.

In terms of years of experience in meliponiculture, men had a greater average of experience compared to women, with differences observed between both groups (Fig. 3). In this regard, Parra-Arguello et al. [36] reported for a group of female peanut meliponiculturists in Yucatan, that 37.5% of the women had less than 5 years of experience in the activity; and 62.5% had 5–10 years of experience. While Pat-Fernández et al. [16] found that PBR meliponiculturists had an average of 30 years of experience; but they did not indicate differences in experience between men and women. However, Luna et al. [37] reported that the average experience of beekeepers was 22 years and that those with the most experience are in the age range of 36–45 years. Although this is not necessarily an indicator of the degree of specialization and professionalization for the beekeeping chain; it does show that interest in the practice of beekeeping remains current.

According to Martínez-Vázquez et al. [28] since women are not the owners of the land; they must negotiate to obtain a rental or loan for some sites. This situation undermines their ability to participate in agricultural activities compared to men. Furthermore, women face mobility and time difficulties to tend to their beehives, and their cultural status as “housewife” instead of “producer” does not count on the collaboration of sons or daughters for the regular beekeeping activities. Therefore, they have to resort to a strategy of mutual support. For her part, Tiburcio-Cayetano [38] indicated that women get up earlier than men to carry out all the necessary domestic activities and organize the children to go to school. In fact, women carry out more activities during the day than men, without receiving any payment; and in many cases, their service is little valued and recognized by their family under the stigma that it is normal or an obligation of being a woman. In this regard, Uicab-Campos et al. [30] suggested that the involvement of the family is also key to the permanence of women within the production units. In most cases, the presence of the family nucleus is important from the support in the construction of the meliponary (in the past), the maintenance (in the present) and the training of children and family members in the system of production practice.

Most of the meliponiculturists in the Yucatán area are predominantly concentrated in the municipality of Maní, with the Flor de Mayo and Lol-Ha (https://www.facebook.com/p/Meliponario-Lool-h%C3%A0-100066574239412/) groups standing out; while in Campeche, the Miel de la Familia Pat group (https://www.facebook.com/mielpat/?locale=es_LA) is located in the municipality of Calkiní. It is important to emphasize that, at present, different NGOs have provided support for the acquisition and construction of bee colonies. The first type of support is carried out through the system of sharecropping, which consists of granting a certain number of colonies, after a certain time, the beneficiaries must return the same number of units received. The second type of support is carried out through the granting of a non-refundable economic resource. These organizations have provided necessary beekeeping training courses to groups made up of women, including the management of SB, safety in the process of extraction and packaging of honey, and preparation of colony products and marketing strategies [32].