Ethics approval

This study was performed in compliance with the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki on Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects and was reviewed by and approved by the Mass General Brigham Institutional Review Board (IRB) (reference number: 2019P002998).

Availability of data and material

The clinical notes corpus from Mass General Brigham analyzed during the current study is not publicly available due to organizational policy: “Do not share individual-level clinical/electronic medical record notes even if considered de-identified.” (Policy ID 4440). Additional data from MarketScan is available for purchase from Merative (marketscan.support@merative.com), as this is a licensed commercial data product.

Code availability

The MTERMS NLP tool may be licensed through the Mass General Brigham Innovation Office (innovation@partners.org). Please CC Professor Li Zhou at lzhou@bwh.harvard.edu.

Competing interests

D.W.B. is an Editorial Board Member of Drug Safety. D.W.B. was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any of the subsequent editorial decisions. D.W.B. reports receiving grants and personal fees from EarlySense, personal fees from CDI Negev, equity from Valera Health, equity from CLEW Medical, equity from MDClone, personal fees and equity from AESOP, personal fees and equity from FeelBetter, outside the submitted work. J.M.P. reports personal fees from DispatchHealth and Credo Health outside the submitted work. D.F. reports research funding from the NIH (K23HL161332). G.P.J. was an employee of IBM Watson Health (now Merative) during the early stages of this research; she is currently an employee of Intuitive Surgical, and she owns stock or stock options for IBM, Kyndryl, and Intuitive Surgical. M.G.A. receives salary support from a grant funded by FeelBetter, outside the submitted work, and received past salary support from a grant funded by IBM Watson Health (now Mertive). The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Consent to participate

The IRB waived the requirement of consent for this study.

Consent for publication

Data are published only in aggregate in accordance with the IRB waiver for consent to participate; thus, consent for publication is not required.

Funding

This research was conducted jointly by Brigham and Women’s Hospital (BWH) and Merative, with financial support from Merative (formerly IBM Watson Health).

Authors’ contributions

Credit: conceptualization: J.M.P., M.G.A., D.F., G.P.J., D.W.B., and L.Z. Data curation: J.M.P., M.G.A., A.S., and D.F. Formal analysis: J.M.P. and M.G.A. Funding acquisition: G.P.J., D.W.B., and L.Z. Investigation: J.M.P. and M.G.A. Methodology: J.M.P., M.G.A., D.F., S.L., and L.Z. Project administration: J.M.P., A.S., D.W.B., and L.Z. Resources: D.W.B. and L.Z. Software: J.M.P. and A.S. Supervision: G.P.J., D.W.B. and L.Z. Validation: J.M.P., M.G.A., and D.F. Visualization: J.M.P. Writing—original draft: J.M.P. and M.G.A. Writing—review and editing: J.M.P., M.G.A., A.S., D.F., S.L., G.P.J., D.W.B., and L.Z. J.M.P. and M.G.A. have contributed equally and are designated to have co-first authorship. All authors are accountable for the integrity of this work. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.