Al-Gholam MA, Mansour FK, Abdel-Fattah NA et al (2014) Effect of pentoxifylline on experimental-dextran sulphate sodium-induced colitis in rats. Br J Med Med Res 4:2037–2057

Google Scholar 

Ali FE, Elfiky MM, Fadda WA et al (2021) Regulation of IL-6/STAT-3/Wnt axis by nifuroxazide dampens colon ulcer in acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis model: Novel mechanistic insight. Life Sci 276:119433

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Atreya R, Neurath MF (2015) Molecular pathways controlling barrier function in IBD. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 12(2):67–68

Google Scholar 

Basuroy S, Seth A, Elias B et al (2006) MAPK interacts with occludin and mediates EGF-induced prevention of tight junction disruption by hydrogen peroxide. Biochem J 393(1):69–77

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bendjelloul F, Malý P, Mandys V et al (2000) Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) deficiency protects mice against severe forms of experimentally induced colitis. Clin Exp Immunol 119(1):57–63

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bing X, Xuelei L, Wanwei D et al (2017) EGCG maintains Th1/Th2 balance and mitigates ulcerative colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway in rats. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017:1–9

Google Scholar 

Costantini TW, Deree J, Loomis W et al (2009) Phosphodiesterase inhibition attenuates alterations to the tight junction proteins occludin and ZO-1 in immunostimulated Caco-2 intestinal monolayers. Life Sci 84(1–2):18–22

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cui L, Feng L, Zhang ZH et al (2014) The anti-inflammation effect of baicalin on experimental colitis through inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB pathway activation. Int Immunopharmacol 23(1):294–303

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Darnell JE Jr, KerrStark IMGR (1994) Jak-STAT pathways and transcriptional activation in response to IFNs and other extracellular signaling proteins. Science 264(5164):1415–1421

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Degagné E, Saba JD (2014) S1 pping fire: Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling as an emerging target in inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated cancer. Clin Exp Gastroenterol 7:205

PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dembiński A, Warzecha Z, Ceranowicz P et al (2005) Role of capsaicin-sensitive nerves and histamine H1, H2, and H3 receptors in the gastroprotective effect of histamine against stress ulcers in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 508(1–3):211–221

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Deree J, Martins J, De Campos T et al (2007) Pentoxifylline attenuates lung injury and modulates transcription factor activity in hemorrhagic shock. J Surg Res 143(1):99–108

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dhameliya H, Thakkar V, Trivedi G et al (2020) Pentoxifylline: an immunomodulatory drug for the treatment of COVID-19. J Pure Appl Microbiol 14(suppl 1):861–867

CAS  Google Scholar 

El-Haggar SM, Hegazy SK, Abd-Elsalam SM et al (2022) Pentoxifylline, a nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, in adjunctive therapy in patients with irritable bowel syndrome treated with mebeverine. Biomed Pharmacother 145:112399

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

El-Haggar SM, Hegazy SK, Maher MM et al (2024) Repurposing metformin as adjuvant therapy in patients with ulcerative colitis treated with mesalamine: a randomized controlled double-blinded study. Int Immunopharmacol 138:112541

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

El-Mahdy NA, El-Sayad ME-S, El-Kadem AH et al (2021) Metformin alleviates inflammation in oxazolone induced ulcerative colitis in rats: plausible role of sphingosine kinase 1/sphingosine 1 phosphate signaling pathway. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 43(2):192–202

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

González-Pacheco H, Amezcua-Guerra L, Sandoval J et al (2020) Potential usefulness of pentoxifylline, a non-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor with anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, antioxidant, and anti-fibrogenic properties, in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 24(14):7612–7614

Google Scholar 

Gowd V, Jori C, Chaudhary AA et al (2022) Resveratrol and resveratrol nano-delivery systems in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. J Nutr Biochem 109:109101

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guthrie E, Jackson J, Shaffer J et al (2002) Psychological disorder and severity of inflammatory bowel disease predict health-related quality of life in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Am J Gastroenterol 97(8):1994–1999

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Han X, Sosnowska D, Bonkowski EL et al (2005) Growth hormone inhibits signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation and reduces disease activity in murine colitis. Gastroenterology 129(1):185–203

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hansberry DR, Shah K, Agarwal P et al (2017) Fecal myeloperoxidase as a biomarker for inflammatory bowel disease. Cureus 9:e1004

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hemmer A, Forest K, Rath J et al (2023) Inflammatory bowel disease: a concise review. South Dakota Med 76:416–423

Google Scholar 

Hepgül G, Tanrıkulu S, Ünalp HR et al (2010) Preventive effect of pentoxifylline on acute radiation damage via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways. Dig Dis Sci 55(3):617–625

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Husdan H, Rapoport A (1968) Estimation of creatinine by the Jaffe reaction: a comparison of three methods. Clin Chem 14(3):222–238

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Itagaki K, Hauser CJ (2003) Sphingosine 1-phosphate, a diffusible calcium influx factor mediating store-operated calcium entry. J Biol Chem 278(30):27540–27547

CAS  Google Scholar 

Kahl C, Cleland JA (2005) Visual analogue scale, numeric pain rating scale and the McGill Pain Questionnaire: an overview of psychometric properties. Phys Ther Rev 10(2):123–128

Google Scholar 

Kałużna A, Olczyk P, Komosińska-Vassev K (2022) The role of innate and adaptive immune cells in the pathogenesis and development of the inflammatory response in ulcerative colitis. J Clin Med 11(2):400

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kamran MZ, Gude RP (2013) Pentoxifylline inhibits melanoma tumor growth and angiogenesis by targeting STAT3 signaling pathway. Biomed Pharmacother 67(5):399–405

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Karatay E, Utku ÖG, Erdal H et al (2017) Pentoxifylline attenuates mucosal damage in an experimental model of rat colitis by modulating tissue biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. Turk J Med Sci 47(1):348–356

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim N-Y, Pae H-O, Kim Y-C et al (2000) Pentoxifylline potentiates nitric oxide production in interleukin-1β-stimulated vascular smooth muscle cells through cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A pathway. Gen Pharmacol 35(4):205–211

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Klebanoff SJ (2005) Myeloperoxidase: friend and foe. J Leukoc Biol 77(5):598–625

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ko JK-S, Sham N-F, Guo X et al (2001) Beneficial intervention of experimental colitis by passive cigarette smoking through the modulation of cytokines in rats. J Investig Med 49(1):21–29

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Konarska K, Cieszkowski J, Warzecha Z et al (2018) Treatment with obestatin—A ghrelin gene-encoded peptide—Reduces the severity of experimental colitis evoked by trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid. Int J Mol Sci 19(6):1643

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kreth S, Ledderose C, Luchting B et al (2010) Immunomodulatory properties of pentoxifylline are mediated via adenosine-dependent pathways. Shock 34(1):10–16

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Levenstein S, Prantera C, Varvo V et al (1994) Psychological stress and disease activity in ulcerative colitis: a multidimensional cross-sectional study. Am J Gastroenterol 89(8):1219–1225

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li X, Wang Q, Ding L et al (2019) Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 enhances the therapeutic effects of MSCs in a dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis models by promoting MSCs homing to murine colons and spleens. Stem Cell Res Ther 10(1):1–11

Google Scholar 

Liu H, Dasgupta S, Fu Y et al (2019) Subsets of mononuclear phagocytes are enriched in the inflamed colons of patients with IBD. BMC Immunol 20(1):1–18

Google Scholar 

Ma TY, GK Iwamoto, NT Hoa et al. (2004) TNF-α-induced increase in intestinal epithelial tight junction permeability requires NF-κB activation. Am J Physiol. 286(3): G367-G376

Maduzia D, Matuszyk A, Ceranowicz D et al (2015) The influence of pretreatment with ghrelin on the development of acetic-acid-induced colitis in rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 66:875–885

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Maines LW, Fitzpatrick LR, French KJ et al (2008) Suppression of ulcerative colitis in mice by orally available inhibitors of sphingosine kinase. Dig Dis Sci 53(4):997–1012

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Masoodi I, Kochhar R, Dutta U et al (2012) Evaluation of fecal myeloperoxidase as a biomarker of disease activity and severity in ulcerative colitis. Dig Dis Sci 57(5):1336–1340

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Matsuda T (2023) The Physiological and pathophysiological role of IL-6/STAT3-mediated signal transduction and STAT3 binding partners in therapeutic applications. Biol Pharm Bull 46(3):364–378

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McHorney CA, Ware JE Jr, Lu JR et al (1994) The MOS 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36): III. Tests of data quality, scaling assumptions, and reliability across diverse patient groups. Med Care. 32:40–66