World Health O. Global tuberculosis report 2022. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022.

Google Scholar 

Zumla A, Raviglione M, Hafner R. Fordham Von Reyn C. Tuberculosis. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:745–55.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, WHO Regional Office for Europe. Tuberculosis surveillance and monitoring in Europe 2022–2020 data. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe and Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control;; 2022. Licence: CC BY 3.0 IGO.

Google Scholar 

Dunn RN, Husien MB. Spinal tuberculosis. Bone Joint J. 2018;100–B:425–31.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rajasekaran S, Soundararajan DCR, Shetty AP, Kanna RM. Spinal tuberculosis: current concepts. Global Spine J. 2018;8:s96–108.

Article  Google Scholar 

Neradi D, Sengupta DK. Epidemiology of tuberculosis of spine. In: Dhatt SS, Kumar V, editors. Tuberculosis of the spine. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 2022. pp. 21–9.

Chapter  Google Scholar 

Batirel A, Erdem H, Sengoz G, Pehlivanoglu F, Ramosaco E, Gülsün S, et al. The course of spinal tuberculosis (Pott disease): results of the multinational, multicentre Backbone-2 study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:1008. .e9-.e18.

Article  Google Scholar 

Dunn R, Zondagh I, Candy S. Spinal tuberculosis: magnetic resonance imaging and neurological impairment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36:469–73.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sunderam G, McDonald RJ, Maniatis T, Oleske J, Kapila R, Reichman LB. Tuberculosis as a manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). JAMA. 1986;256:362–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sharma SK, Mohan A. Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis. Indian J Med Res. 2004;120:316–53.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kaya A, Topu Z, Fitoz S, Numanoglu N. Pulmonary tuberculosis with multifocal skeletal involvement. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 2004;61:133–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garg RK, Somvanshi DS. Spinal tuberculosis: a review. J Spinal Cord Med. 2011;34:440–54.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Waters R, Laubscher M, Dunn RN, Adikary N, Coussens AK, Held M. Higher sensitivity of Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra over Tuberculosis Culture for the diagnosis of spinal tuberculosis with Open or computed tomography–guided biopsies. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023;11.

Małkiewicz A, Dziedzic M. Bone marrow reconversion - imaging of physiological changes in bone marrow. Pol J Radiol. 2012;77:45–50.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Plaxton N, Moncayo V, Barron B, Halkar R. Factors that influence standard uptake values in FDG PET/CT. J Nucl Med. 2014;55:1356.

Google Scholar 

Chen RY, Via LE, Dodd LE, Walzl G, Malherbe ST, Loxton AG, et al. Using biomarkers to predict TB treatment duration (predict TB): a prospective, randomized, noninferiority, treatment shortening clinical trial. Gates Open Res. 2017;1:9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Breen RAM, Smith CJ, Bettinson H, Dart S, Bannister B, Johnson MA, et al. Paradoxical reactions during tuberculosis treatment in patients with and without HIV co-infection. Thorax. 2004;59:704–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Choremis C, Padiatellis C, Zoumboulakis D, Yannakos D. Transitory exacerbation of fever and roentgenographic findings during treatment of tuberculosis in children. Am Rev Tuberculosis Pulmonary Dis. 1955;72:527–36.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Bloch S, Wickremasinghe M, Wright A, Rice A, Thompson M, Kon OM. Paradoxical reactions in non-HIV tuberculosis presenting as endobronchial obstruction. Eur Respiratory Rev. 2009;18:295–9.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Garg RK, Malhotra HS, Gupta R. Spinal cord involvement in tuberculous meningitis. Spinal Cord. 2015;53:649–57.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sahu R, Chaudhari TS, Junewar V, Shukla R. Spinal cord tuberculosis: a paradoxical response to antituberculous therapy. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014:bcr2014203639.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Meintjes G, Stek C, Blumenthal L, Thienemann F, Schutz C, Buyze J, et al. Prednisone for the Prevention of Paradoxical Tuberculosis-Associated IRIS. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:1915–25.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Asselman V, Thienemann F, Pepper DJ, Boulle A, Wilkinson RJ, Meintjes G, et al. Central nervous system disorders after starting antiretroviral therapy in South Africa. Aids. 2010;24:2871–6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bell LC, Breen R, Miller RF, Noursadeghi M, Lipman M. Paradoxical reactions and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in tuberculosis. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;32:39–45.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Volpe-Chaves CE, Lacerda M, Castilho SB, Fonseca SSO, Saad BAA, Franciscato C, et al. Vertebral tuberculosis as a paradoxical reaction to the treatment of pulmonary and meningeal tuberculosis in an immunocompetent patient: a case report. Med (Baltim). 2020;99:e20012.

Article  Google Scholar 

Xie YL, Rosen LB, Sereti I, Barber DL, Chen RY, Hsu DC, et al. Severe paradoxical reaction during treatment of disseminated tuberculosis in a patient with neutralizing Anti-IFNγ autoantibodies. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;62:770–3.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Im JH, Baek JH, Kwon HY, Lee JS. Paradoxical reaction of tuberculous vertebral osteomyelitis: a case series. Infect Dis. 2015;47:271–4.

Article  Google Scholar 

Garg G, Benchekroun MT, Abraham T. FDG-PET/CT in the postoperative period: utility, expected findings, complications, and Pitfalls. Semin Nucl Med. 2017;47:579–94.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Marsh DR, Li G. The biology of fracture healing: optimising outcome. Br Med Bull. 1999;55:856–69.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Malherbe ST, Shenai S, Ronacher K, Loxton AG, Dolganov G, Kriel M, et al. Persisting positron emission tomography lesion activity and Mycobacterium tuberculosis mRNA after tuberculosis cure. Nat Med. 2016;22:1094–100.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Altini C, Lavelli V, Niccoli-Asabella A, Sardaro A, Branca A, Santo G, et al. Comparison of the diagnostic value of MRI and whole body 18F-FDG PET/CT in diagnosis of Spondylodiscitis. J Clin Med. 2020;9:1581.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Diedrich CR, O’Hern J, Wilkinson RJ. HIV-1 and the Mycobacterium tuberculosis granuloma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Tuberculosis. 2016;98:62–76.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abdul H, Abdul N, Nordin A. Dual time point imaging of FDG PET/CT in a tuberculous spondylodiscitis. Biomed Imaging Interv J. 2010;6:e18–e.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bassetti M, Merelli M, Di Gregorio F, Della Siega P, Screm M, Scarparo C, et al. Higher fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) uptake in tuberculous compared to bacterial spondylodiscitis. Skeletal Radiol. 2017;46:777–83.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jh D, Mc B, Pienaar G, Rp L. 18F-FDG PET/CT as a modality for the evaluation of persisting raised infective markers in patients with spinal tuberculosis. SA Orthop J. 2020;19:23–7.

Google Scholar 

Fuster D, Tomas X, Mayoral M, Soriano A, Manchon F, Cardenal C, et al. Prospective comparison of whole-body F-18-FDG PET/CT and MRI of the spine in the diagnosis of haematogenous spondylodiscitis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2015;42:264–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Go SW, Lee HY, Lim CH, Jee W-H, Wang Y-P, Yoo IR, et al. Atypical disseminated skeletal tuberculosis mimicking metastasis on PET-CT and MRI. Intern Med. 2012;51:2961–5.