Our peer-reviewed article search returned 1151 results across eight databases and 2275 grey literature reports. In total, 92 documents including 55 peer-reviewed articles and 37 grey literature pieces met the inclusion criteria for this scoping review. Among the peer-reviewed articles, PRISMA Flow Chart in Fig. 1 shows the selection process for 53 peer-reveiewed articles (Fig. 1). Six additional peer-reviewed articles were hand searched, 2 of which met the inclusion criteria and were included.

PRISMA flow diagram of a scoping review on urban forcibly displaced persons' sexual and reproductive health in low and middle-income countries

The peer-reviewed articles were mapped onto dimensions of sexual health and reproductive health [29] (Table 1). The majority of peer-reviewed articles (n = 40; 72.7%) discussed sexual health domains including: GBV prevention, support and care (n = 23); HIV and STI prevention and control (n = 21); and comprehensive sexuality education (n = 12). Under the sexual health domain, no articles were located that discussed sexual function and psychosexual counselling. More than one-third (n = 20; 36.3%) discussed reproductive health areas including: antenatal, intrapartum and postnatal care (n = 13); contraception counselling & provision (n = 13); fertility care (n = 1); and safe abortion care (n = 1). While not within the SRH framework [28, 29], menstrual hygiene management was included as a SRH issue in this review as it was discussed in three articles. Eight articles discussed intervention areas that included both reproductive and sexual health domains. Sexual and reproductive health dimensions covered in peer-reviewed articles are displayed in Table 2.

Among the 17 studies that examined GBV [32, 33, 36, 37, 40,41,42, 45, 46, 52, 61, 68, 69, 73,74,75,76] in urban contexts, all explored GBV as it was experienced by women and girls, and one examined experiences of both adolescent boys and girls [52]. Most articles explored experiences of adult women: two explored GBV among adolescent girls [75, 76] and one explored GBV experiences among young women [68].

Of the 17 articles that examined GBV, most (n = 11; 64.7%) specifically examined intimate partner violence (IPV) [32, 33, 40,41,42, 45, 52, 61, 69, 73, 76]. Prevalence ranged from 11.1%-86.0% and varied by age, type of IPV, and external factors. All studies examined the experience of adults, with the exception of two that looked at adolescents, and these found the highest prevalences of IPV at 85.8% and 86.0% [52, 76]. Two articles examined the prevalence of different types of IPV. One study found partner control followed by economic abuse and emotional abuse to be the most common forms of IPV at 73%, 53.3%, and 50.3% respectively [33]. Another study found slapping and throwing objects to be the most common forms of physical IPV [41].

More than half of these articles reported associations between IPV and health and wellbeing (n = 6), incuding mental, physical, and other SRH outcomes. For instance, there were associations between experiencing IPV and mental health concerns such as post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms [61] and frequent alcohol use [52]. One study with refugee women in Amman, Irbid and Zarqa, Jordan found an association between psychological IPV and higher rates of health problems including heart, gastrointestinal, liver, respiratory, and urinary problems, recurrent dizziness, fibromyalgia, joint pain, and back pain [32]. Another study with refugee women in Semnan, Iran found IPV exposure was associated with a range of SRH outcomes, including early marriage, sexual coercion, unwanted pregnancy, and a high number of children [40].

The different ways that IPV was measured across studies make it difficult to synthesize these findings, however across studies it appears that a) urban forcibly displaced girls and women are disproportionately exposed to polvictimization (multiple forms of violence); b) there is a range of health challenges linked with IPV exposure, including and extending beyond SRH; and c) married women reported a high prevalence of IPV, including during pregnancy.

Seven of the 17 articles that examined GBV explored risks associated with GBV exposure (41.2%) [36, 37, 42, 46, 52, 68, 75]. Three studies collected data from women only [36, 42, 46] while the other four collected data from both women and men [37, 52, 68, 75]. One study found that women were more likely to share stories about sexual harassment while men more likely to discuss other forms of GBV [68].

GBV exposure risks varied across social categories, including age, education, changing social structures and norms, and disruption to social networks and livelihoods. For instance, studies with adolescent girls and young women, including refugees in Beirut, Beqaa, and Tripoli, Lebanon [68] and displaced people in Izmir, Turkey [75], reported that early marriage was associated with risks for further GBV [68, 75]. Among those experiencing early marriage, factors that increased risks for GBV included limited educational opportunities, financial strains, and being alone outside the home [75]. Further, urbanization may change parents’ perspectives on child marriage after arriving in Lebanon, as they may be more likely to view early marriage as a pathway to protecting their daughters and reducing parental responsibility [39].

Among internally displaced adult women, displacement and subsequent loss of social support networks elevated risks for GBV [36, 37]. For instance, in a study conducted in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, destruction of livelihood elevated risks for GBV [36]. Findings paralleled another study in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire that documented that poverty, food and housing instability, and changing gender roles and norms increased GBV exposure [37]. Partner characteristics and relationship dynamics were also associated with GBV, including partner alcohol misuse [41, 42]. Among pregnant refugees in Sidon, Lebanon, odds of IPV were higher among those whose husbands did not want the pregnancy [42].

Polyvictimization was also reported [73,