Cellucci T, Van MH, Graus F, Muscal E, Gallentine W, Klein-Gitelman MS, et al. Clinical approach to the diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis in the pediatric patient. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2020;7(2):e663.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Barbagallo M, Vitaliti G, Pavone P, Romano C, Lubrano R, Falsaperla R. Pediatric Autoimmune Encephalitis. J Pediatr Neurosci. 2017;12(2):130–4.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dubey D, Pittock S, Kelly C, McKeon A, Lopez-Chiriboga A, Lennon V, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis epidemiology and a comparison to infectious encephalitis. Ann Neurol. 2018;83(1):166–77.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

de Bruijn M, Bruijstens A, Bastiaansen A, van Sonderen A, Schreurs M, Smitt PS, et al. Pediatric autoimmune encephalitis: recognition and diagnosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2020;7(3):e682.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang J, Graves J. Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. In: Handbook of pediatric epilepsy case studies. 2nd ed. CRC Press; 2023.

Google Scholar 

•• Yang JH, Liu EN, Nguyen L, Dunn-Pirio A, Graves J. Survival analysis of immunotherapy effects on relapse rate in pediatric and adult autoimmune encephalitis. Neurology. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000207746. A single center cohort study demonstrating an overall lower relapse risk with rituximab use at the time of initial presentation of autoimmune encephalitis. However, the data for relapse reduction in children and in anti-NMDARE specifically are unclear.

Nosadini M, Thomas T, Eyre M, Anlar B, Armangue T, Benseler SM, et al. International consensus recommendations for the treatment of pediatric NMDAR antibody encephalitis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2021;8(5):e1052.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dalmau J, Armangué T, Planagumà J, Radosevic M, Mannara F, Leypoldt F, et al. An update on anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis for neurologists and psychiatrists: mechanisms and models. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(11):1045–57.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Boesen M, Born A, Lydolph M, Blaabjerg M, Børresen M. Pediatric autoimmune encephalitis in Denmark during 2011–17: a nationwide multicenter population-based cohort study. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2019;23(4):639–52.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cucuzza M, Pavone P, D’Ambra A, Finocchiaro M, Greco F, Smilari P, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis and CSF anti-AMPA GluR3 antibodies in childhood: a case report and literature review. Neurol Sci. 2022;43(9):5237–41.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dalmau J, Rosenfeld M. Autoimmune encephalitis update. Neuro Oncol. 2014;16(6):771–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Theroux LM, Goodkin HP, Heinan KC, Quigg M, Brenton JN. Extreme delta brush and distinctive imaging in a pediatric patient with autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2018;26:121–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gravier-Dumonceau A, Ameli R, Rogemond V, Ruiz A, Joubert B, Muñiz-Castrillo S, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein autoimmunity: a French cohort study. Neurology. 2022;98(6):e653–68.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Flanagan EP, Hinson SR, Lennon VA, Fang B, Aksamit AJ, Morris PP, et al. Glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoglobulin G as biomarker of autoimmune astrocytopathy: Analysis of 102 patients. Ann Neurol. 2017;81(2):298–309.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dubey D, Hinson SR, Jolliffe EA, Zekeridou A, Flanagan EP, Pittock SJ, et al. Autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy: prospective evaluation of 90 patients in 1 year. J Neuroimmunol. 2018;15(321):157–63.

Article  Google Scholar 

Banwell B, Bennett JL, Marignier R, Kim HJ, Brilot F, et al. Diagnosis of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: International MOGAD Panel proposed criteria. Lancet Neurol. 2023;22(3):268–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gabilondo I, Saiz A, Galán L, González V, Jadraque R, Sabater L, et al. Analysis of relapses in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Neurology. 2011;77(10):996–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Florance N, Davis R, Lam C, Szperka C, Zhou L, Ahmad S, et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis in children and adolescents. Ann Neurol. 2009;66(1):11–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Titulaer M, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, Armangué T, Glaser C, Iizuka T, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-N-methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis: a cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12(2):157–65.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Carvajal-González A, Leite MI, Waters P, Woodhall M, Coutinho E, Balint B, Lang B, Pettingill P, Carr A, Sheerin UM, Press R, Press R, Lunn MP, Lim M, Maddison P, Meinck HM, Vandenberghe WVA. Glycine receptor antibodies in PERM and related syndromes: characteristics, clinical features and outcomes. Brain. 2014;137(Pt 8):2178–92.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Armangue T, Olivé-Cirera G, Martínez-Hernandez E, Sepulveda M, Ruiz-Garcia R, Muñoz-Batista M, et al. Associations of paediatric demyelinating and encephalitic syndromes with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies: a multicentre observational study. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19(3):234–46.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hardy D. Autoimmune Encephalitis in Children. Pediatr Neurol. 2022;132:56–66.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fang B, McKeon A, Hinson SR, Kryzer TJ, Pittock SJ, Aksamit AJ, et al. Autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy: a novel meningoencephalomyelitis. JAMA Neurol. 2016;73:1297–307.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

•• Nosadini M, Granata T, Matricardi S, Freri E, Ragona F, Papetti L, et al. Relapse risk factors in anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2019;61:1101–7. This is a meta-analysis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis demonstrating that disease onset in adolescence was associated with an increased odds of relapse whereas treatment with rituximab and IVIG for 6 months or longer were associated with a non-relapsing course. However, no specific pediatric sub-analyses were reported.

Gastaldi M, Mariotto S, Giannoccaro MP, Iorio R, Zoccarato M, Nosadini M, et al. Subgroup comparison according to clinical phenotype and serostatus in autoimmune encephalitis: a multicenter retrospective study. Eur J Neurol. 2020;27(4):633–43.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee S, Kim HD, Lee JS, Kang H. Clinical features and treatment outcomes of seronegative pediatric autoimmune encephalitis. J Clin Neurol. 2021;17(2):300–6.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nosadini M, Eyre M, Molteni E, Thomas T, Irani SR, Dalmau J, et al. Use and safety of immunotherapeutic management of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis: a meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78(11):1333–44.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nosadini M, Mohammad S, Ramanathan S, Brilot F, Dale R. Immune therapy in autoimmune encephalitis: a systemic review. Expert Rev Neurother. 2015;15(12):1391–419.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Sonderen A, Thijs RD, Coenders EC, Jiskoot LC, Sanchez E, de Bruijn MA, et al. Anti-LGI1 encephalitis: clinical syndrome and long-term follow-up. Neurology. 2016;87(14):1449–56.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee WJ, Lee ST, Byun JI, Sunwoo JS, Kim TJ, Lim JA, et al. Rituximab treatment for autoimmune limbic encephalitis in an institutional cohort. Neurology. 2016;86(18):1683–91.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yang J, Liu X. Immunotherapy for refractory autoimmune encephalitis. Front Immunol. 2021;12:790962.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Goenka A, Chikkannaiah M, Kumar G. Pediatric auto-immune encephalitis. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2021;51:101031.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Co DO, Kwon JM. Autoimmune encephalitis: distinguishing features and specific therapies. Crit Care Clin. 2022;38:393–412.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stingl C, Cardinale K, Van Mater H. An update on the treatment of pediatric autoimmune encephalitis. Curr Treatm Opt Rheumatol. 2018;4:14–28.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hauser SL, Waubant E, Arnold DL, Vollmer T, Antel J, Fox RJ, et al. B-cell depletion with rituximab in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(7):676–88.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McAtee CL, Lubega J, Underbrink K, Curry K, Msaouel P, Barrow M, et al. Association of rituximab use with adverse events in children, adolescents, and young adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(3):e2036321.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Oh M, Lee H. A study of hepatitis B virus reactivation associated with rituximab therapy in real-world clinical practice: a single-center experience. Clin Mol Hepatol. 2013;19(1):51–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dinoto A, Ferrari SMS. Treatment options in refractory autoimmune encephalitis. CNS Drugs. 2022;36(9):919–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central