Attfield KE, Jensen LT, Kaufmann M, et al. The immunology of multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Immunol. 2022;22:734–50.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rodríguez Murúa S, Farez MF, Quintana FJ. The Immune Response in Multiple Sclerosis. Annu Rev Pathol. 2022;17:121–39.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baecher-Allan C, Kaskow BJ, Weiner HL. Multiple Sclerosis: Mechanisms and Immunotherapy. Neuron. 2018;97:742–68.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang J, Wang J, Wang J, et al. Targeting Microglia and Macrophages: A Potential Treatment Strategy for Multiple Sclerosis. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:286.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Touil H, Li R, Zuroff L, et al. Cross-talk between B cells, microglia and macrophages, and implications to central nervous system compartmentalized inflammation and progressive multiple sclerosis. EBioMedicine. 2023;96:104789.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dangond F, Donnelly A, Hohlfeld R, et al. Facing the urgency of therapies for progressive MS - a Progressive MS Alliance proposal. Nat Rev Neurol. 2021;17:185–92.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cree BAC, Hollenbach JA, Bove R, et al. Silent progression in disease activity-free relapsing multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2019;85:653–66.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Faissner S, Plemel JR, Gold R, et al. Progressive multiple sclerosis: from pathophysiology to therapeutic strategies. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2019;18:905–22.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lassmann H. Pathogenic Mechanisms Associated With Different Clinical Courses of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol. 2018;9:3116.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Scalfari A, Traboulsee A, Oh J, et al. Smouldering-Associated Worsening in Multiple Sclerosis: An International Consensus Statement on Definition, Biology, Clinical Implications, and Future Directions. Ann Neurol. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.27034.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carlson AK, Amin M, Cohen JA. Drugs Targeting CD20 in Multiple Sclerosis: Pharmacology, Efficacy, Safety, and Tolerability. Drugs. 2024;84:285–304.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lassmann H. Targets of therapy in progressive MS. Mult Scler. 2017;23:1593–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tolebrutinib meets primary endpoint in HERCULES phase 3 study, the first and only to show reduction in disability accumulation in non-relapsing secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. (Press Release) 2024: https://www.sanofi.com/en/media-room/press-releases/2024/2024-09-02-05-00-00-2938875. Accessed 3 Oct 2024

Karnell JL, Rieder SA, Ettinger R, et al. Targeting the CD40-CD40L pathway in autoimmune diseases: Humoral immunity and beyond. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2019;141:92–103.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ramanujam M, Steffgen J, Visvanathan S, et al. Phoenix from the flames: Rediscovering the role of the CD40-CD40L pathway in systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis. Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19:102668.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Elgueta R, Benson MJ, de Vries VC, et al. Molecular mechanism and function of CD40/CD40L engagement in the immune system. Immunol Rev. 2009;229:152–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Koho H, Paulie S, Ben-Aissa H, et al. Monoclonal antibodies to antigens associated with transitional cell carcinoma of the human urinary bladder. I. Determination of the selectivity of six antibodies by cell ELISA and immunofluorescence. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 1984;17:165–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Noelle RJ, Roy M, Shepherd DM, et al. A 39-kDa protein on activated helper T cells binds CD40 and transduces the signal for cognate activation of B cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:6550–4.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

van Kooten C, Banchereau J. CD40-CD40 ligand. J Leukoc Biol. 2000;67:2–17.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aarts S, Seijkens TTP, van Dorst KJF, et al. The CD40-CD40L Dyad in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis and Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol. 2017;8:1791.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

André P, Nannizzi-Alaimo L, Prasad SK, et al. Platelet-derived CD40L: the switch-hitting player of cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:896–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Graf D, Müller S, Korthäuer U, et al. A soluble form of TRAP (CD40 ligand) is rapidly released after T cell activation. Eur J Immunol. 1995;25:1749–54.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mazzei GJ, Edgerton MD, Losberger C, et al. Recombinant soluble trimeric CD40 ligand is biologically active. J Biol Chem. 1995;270:7025–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pullen SS, Dang TT, Crute JJ, et al. CD40 signaling through tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors (TRAFs). Binding site specificity and activation of downstream pathways by distinct TRAFs. J Biol Chem. 1999;274:14246–54.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Notarangelo LD, Peitsch MC, Abrahamsen TG, et al. CD40lbase: a database of CD40L gene mutations causing X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome. Immunol Today. 1996;17:511–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Noelle RJ. CD40 and its ligand in host defense. Immunity. 1996;4:415–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

De Silva NS, Klein U. Dynamics of B cells in germinal centres. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15:137–48.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Foy TM, Laman JD, Ledbetter JA, et al. gp39-CD40 interactions are essential for germinal center formation and the development of B cell memory. J Exp Med. 1994;180:157–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kawabe T, Naka T, Yoshida K, et al. The immune responses in CD40-deficient mice: impaired immunoglobulin class switching and germinal center formation. Immunity. 1994;1:167–78.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Splawski JB, Fu SM, Lipsky PE. Immunoregulatory role of CD40 in human B cell differentiation. J Immunol. 1993;150:1276–85.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Laman JD, Claassen E, Noelle RJ. Functions of CD40 and Its Ligand, gp39 (CD40L). Crit Rev Immunol. 2017;37:371–420.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schoenberger SP, Toes RE, van der Voort EI, et al. T-cell help for cytotoxic T lymphocytes is mediated by CD40-CD40L interactions. Nature. 1998;393:480–3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mathur RK, Awasthi A, Saha B. The conundrum of CD40 function: host protection or disease promotion? Trends Parasitol. 2006;22:117–22.

Article  CAS  PubMed