General picture and comparison with literature

Three hundred and seventy-four taxa (belonging to 92 families, and 276 genera) (Additional file 1: Table S1, Table 2) emerged from the survey, leading to the acquisition and systematization of the ethnobotanical knowledge associated with them. Out of these 374 taxa, 251 are plants wild native, 40 wild alien, 74 cultivated and 6 are natural products purchased by people from the market.

The study, involving a total of 1172 informants, was conducted in 22 municipalities in the district of Bologna (Fig. 1), which were grouped into three areas: hill, mountain, and plain.

The vegetation in Bologna district is influenced by altitude and longitude gradients. The altitude gradient encompasses a sub-Mediterranean zone, a middle European zone, a sub-Atlantic zone, and an Oroboreal zone. The longitudinal gradient is determined by the distance from the Adriatic Sea and becomes more evident from the hill to mountain areas. Regarding the plain area, this longitudinal gradient is difficult to detect, due to the general high level of urbanization in this region, which hinders the presence of continuous natural environments.

In the lowland, the vegetation is characterized by ruderal, disturbance-tolerant, and vegetal species in the cultivated areas; exotic species are numerous and abundant, especially along transport infrastructures, rivers, and drainage canals. Mixed Quercus forests (Q. pubescens Willd., Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Q. cerris L.) are the natural vegetation in the hilly and sub-montane areas (up to 800–900 m a.s.l.), whereas the montane belt (1000–1600 m a.s.l.) is nearly entirely dominated by Fagus sylvatica L. forests. In the subalpine belt, the plant landscape is characterized by wide Vaccinium myrtillus L. and V. gaultherioides Bigelow heathlands, here and there mixed with Juniperus communis L. [13, 14].

The three areas: hill, mountain, and plain, gave information on 278, 213, and 110 taxa, respectively. Noteworthy, only 63 of them were in common between all three areas (Fig. 2A). It does not surprise that in the plain, which is highly urbanized and with reduced local flora, were identified only 16 plants cited exclusively in this area (Fig. 2A).

Fig. 2

Venn diagrams reporting: A the number of taxa emerging from the survey in the different areas; B the number of taxa with medical, food, and cosmetic use. The diagrams were obtained using the web tool: http://bioinformatics.psb.ugent.be/webtools/Venn/ [15]

All the detailed information on the cited uses of the taxa is summarized in Table 2, striving to offer a complete picture of the traditional knowledge held by the local people of the investigated area.

The information was systematized into 12 use categories (UC): medicinal (MED), food (FOOD), cosmetic (COSM), domestic (DOM), superstitious–magical–religious (SMR), agropastoral (AGROPA), craft (CRAFT), repellent-insecticide (REP), veterinary (VET), toxic (TOXIC), games (GAME), other uses and information (OUI).

The most relevant use of the plants was in traditional medicine (Fig. 3A). In fact, MED was the most important UC both in terms of number of taxa (310) and number of citations, accounting for 4446 citations in total. In terms of importance, MED was immediately followed by FOOD. A picture of the number of taxa in relation of the three most relevant UC (MED, FOOD, and COSM) is given in the Venn diagram of Fig. 2B.

Fig. 3

A Histogram: number of taxa cited for a specific use category (UC). Pie chart: Percentage of UC, calculated on the basis of the total number of taxa in each UC. B Most cited (more than 100 total citations) families C Most cited taxa, considering all the UC

Seventeen families (Fig. 3B) and 17 taxa (Fig. 3C) received more than 100 citations (considering all UC). Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Rosaceae were the three most cited families, and Urtica dioica (367 cit.), Malva sylvestris (303 cit.) and Taraxacum spp. (261 cit.) were the three most cited taxa. In terms of exploitation in the UC, the most versatile plants were: Lavandula angustifolia (cited in 9 UC), Urtica dioica (8 UC), Juniperus communis (7 UC), Rosa canina (7 UC), Castanea sativa (7 UC), Juglans regia (7 UC).

The results of this study point out that the emerging taxa were very versatile not only in terms of UC but also for the high diversification in the preparation and organs used for each taxon. In fact, considering all the UC, the majority of the taxa (270; 72% of the total taxa) had more than one preparation, and, similarly, 230 taxa (61.3% of the total) had more than one organ of interest.

The most frequent preparations were infusion and decoction administrated per os or for external use. Focusing only on MED and FOOD, the most used organ was the leaf (leaf of 158 taxa were in MED and 63 in FOOD), followed by the flower (81 taxa MED and 35 FOOD), and the fruit (78 taxa MED and 47 FOOD) (Fig. 4C, D).

Fig. 4

A MED subcategories for number of cited taxa, B FOOD subcategories for number of cited taxa, C plant parts used in MED, D plant parts used in FOOD

To obtain a first comparison of the obtained results with the general ethnobotanical knowledge of Italy, the book by Guarrera [12] was consulted. As a result, 22 plants cited in this survey were not listed there. Hence, out of these 22 plants, the focus was restricted to the 13 wild native (considered most relevant for ethnobotany), and a bibliographic survey was carried out in order to investigate whether the traditional uses of these plants here found were also reported in other ethnobotanical studies.

According to this search, no previous ethnobotanical studies reported in scientific literature were giving information on the use of two plants, namely: Globularia bisnagarica (UC in our study = MED) and Soldanella alpina (UC = MED), both plants were cited laxative, and G. bisnagarica also as diuretic. The other 11 wild native plants emerging from our study were found also in previous ethnobotanical works developed in countries other than Italy, with several similarity in the uses. These 11 plants were: Alkekengi officinarum (UC in our study = MED, FOOD, TOXIC) [16,17,18,19], Dactylis glomerata (UC = FOOD, AGROPA) [20, 21], Elymus repens (UC = FOOD, MED, AGROPA) [18, 22,23,24], Erigeron canadensis (UC = FOOD) [25], Galium sylvaticum (UC = MED, FOOD) [26], Genista tinctoria (UC = CRAFT) [18, 27], Meum athamanticum (UC = FOOD) [28,29,30], Persicaria hydropiper (UC = FOOD)[31], Picea abies (UC = MED) [32, 33], Ranunculus ficaria (UC = MED) [18, 34], and Tanacetum corymbosum (UC = MED, DOM) [18, 35]. However, revising all the literature found, it resulted that specific traditional uses of 5 of these plants were reported for the first time in our work. In particular, it was never reported before the uses of Erigeron canadensis as rennet, of Ranunculus ficaria leaves as a remedy for corns, of Galium sylvaticum for milk curding and as anti-inflammatory, the use to craft ropes of Genista tinctoria, and the nutraceutical use of Meum athamanticum leaves and stems, eaten for their deflating and digestive properties.

Medicinal use (MED)

Three hundred and ten taxa were cited in MED (82.9% of total taxa), representing the 37% of taxa per UC (Fig. 3A). The three most cited species for MED were: Malva sylvestris (280 cit.), Matricaria chamomilla (223 cit.), and Linum usitatissimum (114 cit.).

As shown in Fig. 4A, when considering the taxa cited in the MED subcategories, the highest number (160 taxa; 17% of the total) was found for the subcategory Gastroenteric (including treatment of generic gastrointestinal issues, digestive problems, laxative, astringent, abdominal pain, colitis, ulcer, stomachache, nausea, vomit, aerophagy), followed by Respiratory (cold, cough, catarrh, bronchitis, flu, expectorant, throat issues, asthma) (133 taxa; 14% of the total), and Dermatologic (burns, wounds, acne, blisters, eczema, psoriasis, pimples, insect bites, redness, herpes, warts, anti-sweat) (122 taxa; 13% of the total). Similarly, based on the number of citations, the most important MED subcategories were again Gastroenteric (863 citations, 19% of the total citations in MED), followed by Respiratory (786 cit., 18% of total MED), and Dermatologic (716 cit., 16% of total MED). The remaining 16 subcategories, gathering less than 10% of total taxa and citations, were (in alphabetic order): Antibiotic, Antiparasitic, Antitumoral, Aphrodisiac and Sexual Desire Regulator, Cardiovascular (varicose veins, hemorrhoids, blood pressure, legs edema, nosebleed, chilblains, headache), Ears (otalgia), Febrifuge, General State of Health (preventive, invigorating), Hepatic (purifying, depurative) Anti-inflammatory, Kidney (diuretic, cystitis, kidney stones), Musculoskeletal (arthritis, rheumatics, arthrosis, bone pain, wryneck), Nervous System (depression, insomnia, sedative, memory loss, focus, dizziness, migraine) Ophthalmic (stye, eye redness, and swollen), Oral Cavity (canker sores, halitosis, gingivitis, gums, toothache, abscesses), Reproductive System (menopause, menstrual pains, menorrhagia).

The majority of the taxa (218 taxa, 70.3% of the total MED) had more than one MED subcategory, and the top 7 species with more than one MED subcategory (≥ 10 subcategories) were: Salvia officinalis (12 MED subcategories), Malva sylvestris (12 MED subcategories), Rosmarinus officinalis (11 MED subcategories), Matricaria chamomilla (11 MED subcategories), Sambucus nigra (10 MED subcategories), Petroselinum crispum (10 MED subcategories), Allium cepa (10 MED subcategories). The most cited taxa for each MED subcategory are reported in Additional file 1: Table S4.

Food use (FOOD)

One hundred and ninety-seven taxa (52.7% of the total taxa, representing the 23% of the taxa per UC (Fig. 3A)) were cited for FOOD, and out of these, 28 taxa had only food use. The most cited taxa for this UC were Urtica dioica (185 cit.), Taraxacum spp. (153 cit.), Sonchus spp. (107 cit.).

FOOD was further divided in 16 subcategories (Fig. 4B). Five of these subcategories included plants used in general cookery: (1) Eaten row or in salad, (2) Eaten cooked (generally in soup, boiled or fried), (3) Dishes (used to prepare general dishes sweets and desserts), 4) Traditional dishes, (5) Spices, aroma, and flavor. Seven other FOOD subcategories were related to specific food preparations, namely plants used for: (6) Milk Curding, 7) Flour, (8) Jam, (9) Liqueur (and other alcoholic beverages), (10) Drinks, (11) Hot Beverages, (12) Coffee-substituting Beverages. Another important FOOD subcategory included plants eaten for their (13) Nutraceutical properties. Finally, the uses as (14) Food Preservatives, (15) Thirst Quenchers, and (16) Appetite Regulators were also reported. To facilitate access to the general FOOD information, Additional file 1: Table S2 reports all the taxa cited for each FOOD subcategory.

Ninety-eight taxa (the highest number of taxa cited for a FOOD subcategory) were listed in the Nutraceutical subcategory. In fact, according to the informants they had diverse and numerous beneficial properties associated with their use as food. This result underlines the importance that the Mediterranean tradition has always given to what nowadays has developed into the nutraceutical approach. In general, the survey revealed that several plants are used in cookery for their detoxifying, purifying, digestive, deflating, astringent, laxative, energizing, remineralizing, and diuretic properties. Moreover, some plants were eaten for more specific beneficial effects. For instance, chili, pomegranate, or onion were recommended to improve blood circulation, strawberry to lower blood pressure, Sonchus spp. leaves for their beneficial effect on the heart, and sea barely to prevent heart conditions. Biscuits done with carob leaves are eaten to relieve stomach acidity, lettuce soup for stomachaches, wall barely (Hordeum murinum) for gastritis, and fennel to reduce vomiting associated with pregnancy. Celtis australis fruits were claimed to reduce stress and depression, walnuts to decrease stress and relieve migraines, wall barely to aid in focusing, and onions to induce sleep. Cooked rosehip shoots and dogwood fruits are eaten to relieve sore throats, strawberries to treat flu, wall barely to prevent lung conditions, and onions are eaten in salads as they have disinfecting properties for the throat and oral cavity. Several fruits, such as strawberry, medlar, cherry, and rosehip, are eaten for their anti-inflammatory properties, and Hippophae rhamnoides fruits are consumed to strengthen the immune system. Leek soup is used to cure arthritis and gout. Spinach leaves are believed to provide strength to muscles and bones. Cynara cardunculus (both flower and leaves) is considered a food with protective and curative properties on the liver. Fresh raspberries eaten in large quantities are believed to help fetal development, nettle is recommended during breastfeeding, and walnuts are claimed to help in staying young.

Forty-three species were used as spices, aroma, and flavor, including also plants chewed for their pleasant taste or to refresh the mouth, such as mint, Lamium amplexicaule (for its mint-like taste), Rumex acetosa (for the sour taste), Polypodium vulgare (for the licorice-like taste), and flowers sucked for their sweet taste, such as Lonicera periclymenum, Anacamptis morio, and Primula vulgaris.

Interestingly, 9 taxa were used to prepare hot beverages as a substitution for coffee during times of war and famine. A specific organ of these plants was roasted and drunk for the coffee-like color and bitter taste of its decoction, and they are: root of Cichorium intybus, fruits of Fagus sylvatica, fruits Hordeum vulgare, fruits of Hordeum murinum, acorns of Quercus pubescens, acorns of Quercus robur, seeds of Ruscus aculeatus, roots of Sonchus spp., and roots of Taraxacum spp.

Half of the taxa had more than one FOOD subcategory (102 taxa, 52% of FOOD taxa), and 37 taxa (19% of FOOD taxa) had more than one organ of interest, showcasing the extensive traditional knowledge about plants in cookery in the province of Bologna. The top five plants with more than one FOOD subcategories (≥ of 6 subcategories) are: Sambucus nigra (7 subcategories), Mentha spp. (6 subcategories), Achillea millefolium (6 subcategories), Rosa canina (6 subcategories), Foeniculum vulgare (6 subcategories).

Cosmetic use (COSM)

Seventy taxa were listed in the UC Cosmetic (COSM) (18.7% of total taxa, representing the 8% of the taxa per UC in Fig. 3A). The three most frequently cited species in COSM were Urtica dioica (48 cit.), Salvia officinalis (33 cit.), and Matricaria chamomilla (26 cit.). Detailed information about the preparation and organs used can be found in Table 2.

The COSM subcategories (Fig. 5A) are as follows: (1) Hair-Scalp, which includes treatments for hair loss, hair and scalp strengthening, shine and hair dyeing, as well as remedies for oily or dry hair and dandruff; (2) Skin treatment, covering cosmetic applications such as emollient, redness reduction, skin refreshment, cleansing, rejuvenating, anti-wrinkles treatments, whitening and suntan agents; (3) Cellulitis treatment, (4) Other cosmetics, which encompasses various cosmetic applications not includible in the previous subcategories, such as counteracting eye bags and swelling, reducing dark circles under the eyes, footbaths for refreshing and preventing excessive sweating, perfumes, teeth-whitening agents, and to obtain a red lipstick. To facilitate access to this information, Additional file 1: Table S2 reports the taxa cited in each COSM subcategory.

Fig. 5

Number of taxa cited for each specific subcategory of: A cosmetic (COSM); B domestic (DOM); C superstitious–magical–religious (SMR); and D agropastoral (AGROPA)

Urtica dioica had the highest number of citations in COSM (48 cit), while Juglans regia, Lavandula angustifolia, Matricaria chamomilla, Salvia officinalis, and Rosmarinus officinalis had the highest number of COSM subcategories; they were, in fact, cited in 3 diverse COSM subcategories.

The primary use among the COSM subcategories was Skin treatment, which included 37 taxa, accounting for 40% of the total listed in COSM.

Domestic (DOM) and Craft (CRAFT) uses

Numerous and diverse domestic uses (DOM) of plants emerged from this work. Fifty-seven taxa were cited for this UC (15.2% of total taxa representing the 7% of the total taxa per UC in Fig. 3A). The three most cited plants were Lavandula angustifolia (50 cit.), Syzygium aromaticum (10 cit.), Sambucus nigra (8 cit.). The subcategories of DOM were as follows (Fig. 5B): (1) Fuel (included plants used to light wood ovens, fireplaces and stoves, and plants used to obtain oil for lamps), (2) Ornamental, (3) Dye for fabric, (4) Perfume (for wardrobe, linen closets, and clothes, as well as for general perfumes to freshen the house and overcome bad smells), (5) Ties, (6) Ink, (7) Other domestic. The latter included abrasive plants used to clean glass, bottles, and flasks, plants used as laundry detergent, to wash wool, as stain-remover for clothes, to shine wood furniture, to cool wine bottles, for wool carding. Curiously, this DOM subcategory included the use of Arctium minus as “toilet paper,” of Triticum aestivum to make paper, of Verbascum thapsus to obtain wicks for oil lamps, and Hordeum vulgare that was treated to obtain a yellow paper, used for wrapping food. All the plants cited in the DOM subcategories are reported in Additional file 1: Table S2.

Thirty-two taxa (8.5% of total taxa representing the 4% of the pie chart shown in Fig. 3A) were reported for their craft uses (CRAFT). The three most cited taxa in this UC were Quercus spp. (9 cit.), Salix alba (8 cit.), and Castanea sativa (7 cit.). CRAFT included five trees cited as their wood was used to make musical instruments, plants used to make pipes, and for crafting various tools, to make furniture, scaffoldings, and various constructions and to obtain fiber for fabrics. All the plants cited in CRAFT are reported in Additional file 1: Table S3.

Superstitious–magical–religious use (SMR)

Striving to preserve the traditional knowledge in its entirety, the study also inquired and reported that plant uses linked to superstitions, magic, and religions (SMR). This UC included 52 plants (13.9% of total taxa representing the 6% of the total taxa per UC in Fig. 3A), and all the information acquired for the plants is detailed in Table 2. The most cited species were Aesculus hippocastanum (26 cit.), Stachys recta (24 cit.), and Allium sativum (23 cit.). Except for Acer campestre, Sanguinaria canadensis, and Trifolium repens, all the other taxa listed in SMR were cited also in other UC.

The SMR subcategories (Fig. 5C) were: (1) Apotropaic (able to drive away “evil eye” and evil entities or influences), (2) Propitiatory (able to bring good luck and fortune in life, journeys, agriculture, gambling. and economy), (3) Weather prediction (through divination), (4) Bringing peace and good mood (including also the ability to “purify” places), (5) Healer (able to heal a disease in a superstitious or ritualistic way), (6) Protective (from a specific disease), (7) Other SMR. The latter subcategory included plants used to predict a future marriage, find aquifers, to celebrate pagan marriage, to ward off hail, lightning and thunderbolts, to make desires come true, to make someone fall in love, to make a person more handsome, to prolong life, and to promote premonitory dreams. In this latter subcategory were also inserted plants cited for some dreadful uses, namely Sambucus nigra and Linaria vulgaris. Interestingly, five plants were harvested during the night before the 24th of June (night of Saint John) to be effective: Hypericum perforatum, Juglans regia, Lavandula angustifolia, Pteridium aquilinum, and Stachys recta. Additional file 1: Table S2 reports all the plants used for each SMR subcategory.

Agropastoral (AGROPA) and veterinary (VET) uses

In the Agropastoral category (AGROPA) 43 taxa were cited (5% of total taxa representing the 5% of total taxa per UC in Fig. 3A), with the most cited ones being Quercus spp. (20 cit.), Urtica dioica (17 cit.), Robinia pseudoacacia (12 cit.), and Medicago sativa (12 cit.). AGROPA included three subcategories (Fig. 5D): (1) Feed, (2) Horticulture (including anti-weed, soil fertilizer and enricher, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal, and weeds), and (3) Other Agropastoral, including plants used to make animal bedding and to attract bees. (Additional file 1: Table S2 lists the plants used in the AGROPA subcategories.)

Some plants of the subcategory Feed were considered not only nutritive but also able to improve the quality of products derived from the animals.

In the veterinary category (VET), 21 taxa were included (5.6% of total taxa representing the 3% of the pie chart shown in Fig. 3A). The most cited taxa were Helleborus viridis (37 cit.), Petroselinum crispum (4 cit.), and Fraxinus spp. (4 cit.).

Repellent-insecticide use (REP), toxic, games, and other uses and information (OUI)

In the repellent-insecticide category (REP), twenty-eight taxa were listed (7.5% of total taxa representing the 3% of the pie chart shown in Fig. 3A), and the most cited species were Lavandula angustifolia (33 cit.), Urtica dioica (17 cit.), and Syzygium aromaticum (12 cit.).

Some plants were considered repellent for insects or parasites in general, some were specified to have repellent action against mosquitos, aphids, moths, lice, flies, gadflies, and fleas. Some other plants were considered repellent for animals such as scorpions, moles, spiders, vipers and mice or insecticidal, and pesticidal. Ten toxic plants were listed in TOXIC and (for easy access, see Additional file 1: Table S3). Eight taxa were cited by the interviews for their uses in games that were generally played by kids (see Arctium lappa, Primula spp., Primula veris, and Crategus monogyna). Nineteen taxa were listed in “Other Uses and Information” (OUI). This UC included uses related to times of shortage and war, for instance, plants used as tobacco-substitutes and other uncommon uses (see Table 2 and the list in Additional file 1: Table S3).

Phytonyms

The plant names (phytonyms) were given by the interviewees in Italian or, more often, in the dialect of Bologna (Table 2). Some of these dialectal phytonyms were of particular interest and could be divided into six groups: phytonyms derived from plant (1) medicinal use, (2) food use, (3) connection to rituals, myths, or saints, (4) practical uses (5) growth environment or morphological traits, and (6) smell. Examples of the plant of the first group are Aethusa cynapium L. named “Erba dla vòs” (herb of the voice) referring to the popular use of the dried leaves in infusion to treat hoarseness, Angelica sylvestris L. named “Erba di cavei” (herb of hair), deriving from the tradition of using the boiled flowers to treat baldness, Centaurium erythraea Rafn. named “Êrba da la fîvra” (fever herb) and used to lower fever, Chelidonium majus L. named “Êrba di pôr” (leek herb) since the caustic juice was applied on warts and leeks, Delphinium staphisagria L. named “Êrba pr i bdûc'” (lice herb) widely used as a popular anti-lice, Echium vulgare L. named “Erba viperina” (viper grass) since the decoction of the roots was believed to be an antidote against snake venom, Euphrasia officinalis L. named “Èrba pr'i och” (herb for the eyes) from its use to treat eye conditions, Hepatica nobilis Schreb named “Erba di Bogn” (pimple herb) from the use of the leaf juice to treat pimples, Hylotelephium maximum L. Holub named “Erba della Madonna” (Holy Virgin's herb) referring to the excellent healing properties of its leaves which act like “a miracle of the Holy Virgin” for the wounds, Polygala vulgaris L. named “Erba da la tass” (cough herb) from the popular use of its decoction against coughs and bronchitis, Taraxacum spp. named “Pessalet” (bedwetter) referring to the strong diuretic properties attributed to this plant.

In the second group are found plants such as Aesculus hippocastanum L. named “Castagna mata” (mad chestnut), since the seeds look like chestnuts but are not good for eating, Anacamptis morio named “Fior ch' as surcen” (flowers that are sucked) from the popular tradition of sucking the flowers for their sweet flavor, Armoracia rusticana G. Gaertn., B.Mey. and Scherb named “Cren” (camouflage), for the acrid and spicy root popularly used for its acidic flavor capable of covering the unpleasant tastes that the meat takes on due to poor preservation, Clematis vitalba L. called “Asparago dei poveri” (poor man's asparagus) because its young shoots can be consumed like asparagus, hence they were harvested in spring by poor people. Crepis sancta L. Babc. named “Ciocapiat” literally hitter-of-pots, a dialect name used to indicate sellers of dishes who boast of their robustness by banging them against each other; this term was also used to indicate a charlatan and here comes the association with the Crepis sancta that has a taste similar to chicory but it is a wild plant and a less valuable food. Galium sylvaticum L. named “Caglio di bosco” (forest rennet) for it was used by shepherds for milk curdling, Lathyrus oleraceus Lam., named “Mangiatutto” (eat-all) so called because every part of these plants is eaten, even the pod, Polypodium vulgare L. named “Faelza dulza” (sweet fern) or “Falsa liquirizia” (fake licorice) from the sweetish flavor of the rhizome, similar to that of licorice.

Examples of the plants of the third group were Linaria vulgaris subsp. vulgaris named “Êrba däl stréjj” (witches' herb), since in popular tradition the plant was used by wizards and witches performing evil spells, Stachys recta L. named “Êrba d'la pôra” (herb of fear), since it was used in several rituals to heal traumas and fear, and it was popularly believed that children's fears could be washed away by adding its decoction to bath water. Barbarea vulgaris named “Barbarea,” “Barbarella,” or “Erba di Santa Barbara” (St. Barbara herb), so called because the leaves were eaten on December 4, the day on which Santa Barbara is celebrated, or Hypericum perforatum L. called “Erba ‘d San Zvàn” (St. Joan Herb) since it is traditionally harvested the night of St. Joan. Lilium candidum L. named “Giglio di Sant’Antonio” (lily of St. Anthony), since the pure white lily represents the penitents following St. Anthony in the path toward God through the renunciation of material pleasures to exalt the spiritual ones. Veronica officinalis L. called “Occhi della Madonna” (Holy Virgin’s eyes) from the particular light blue color of the little flowers associated with the eyes of the Holy Virgin.

The fourth group is related to phytonyms referring to practical uses, and includes Cytisus scoparius subsp. scoparius called “Ginestra dei Carbonai” (broom of the charcoal burners) from the popular tradition according to which the charcoal burners used the branches of this plant to build the roofs of the huts where they worked in the summer, Dipsacus fullonum L. named “Cardo dei lanaioli” (wool workers' thistle) since the thorny infructescences of the plant were used by weavers to card woolen fabrics, Helleborus foetidus L. named “Cavadenti” (teeth-remover) since the rhizome, positioned between the tooth and the gum, was used for the extraction of the teeth. Ilex aquifolium L. and Ruscus aculeatus L. in addition to other different local names were also both called “Ponztop” (literally biting-mouse) referring to the fact that for their sharp leaves, they were placed around the supplies to keep mice away. Sorbus aucuparia L. was called “Sorbo degli uccellatori” (rowan’s fowler) for the birds that were nesting on this plant to feed on its red berries and so they were captured. Parietaria officinalis L. called “Erba vetriola” (sandpaper-herb) for the frequent use of its leaves to clean glass, demijohns and bottles, thanks to the fuzz that covers the entire plant which makes it almost similar to sandpaper.

The phytonyms of the fifth group were related to specific features of the plant, such as Cornus sanguinea L. called “Sanguinella” (bloody) from the red color of the bark of the winter branches. Dactylis glomerata L. “Erba mazzolina” (Bouquet grass) for the flowers are gathered in dense and flat spikelet, forming “bunches” separated from each other. Delphinium consolida subsp. Consolida called “Speronella” (spur-like) due to the spur shape of its light blue flower, Equisetum arvense L. called “Erba cavallina” (horse grass) or “Coda cavallina” (horsetail) from the shape of the adult plant which resembles a horse's tail. Euonymus europaeus L. named “Berretta del prete” (priest's hat) from the shape of the fruits which recall the segmented cap with central pompom once used by Catholic priests. Euphorbia cyparissias L. named “Erba Latarola” (latex-producing herb) from the acrid and poisonous whitish latex produced by the plant, Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don named “Perpetuino” (perpetual) referring to the inflorescences which continue to maintain their appearance and color even when withered. Laburnum anagyroidis Medik. named “Maggiociondolo” (May-pendant) alluding to the flowers in pendant clusters that bloom in May. Lonicera caprifolium L. named “Ligabòsc” (literally who-ties-the woods) since it is a climbing plant, while Glechoma hederacea is named “Laͤddra terræstra” (ground ivy) for its climbing habit on the ground. Ranunculus arvensis L. named “Piè gallo” (rooster's foot) for its leaves, which resemble the feet and combs of a rooster. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, named “Sciopetin” or “Ciuchaͤtt” (crackling) for its flower that “pops” if held between the fingers. Tragopogon pratensis L. named “Barba di becco” (goat’s beard) that seems to come from the Lombardic language “bikk” meaning goat, or called “Barba d’frè” (monk’s beard) since the infructescence (made of achenes with pappus) resembles a bearded face. Other phytonyms in this group are related to plant growth conditions or environment, such as Asplenium ceterach L. named “Erba rugine” (rust grass) for the reddish spores arranged on the underside of the leaf, or also called “Spaccapietre” (stonebreaker) because it grows tenaciously on rocks and walls, slowly penetrating the stones, similar name for the same reasons was given also to Celtis australis L. named “Spaccasassi” (stonebreaker). Globularia bisnagarica L. called “Morina” (young widow) because, between March and May, it blooms in dry meadows and pastures alone, surrounded by no other flowers. Lamium amplexicaule L. named “Erba ruota” (wheel grass) because the plant is easily found near paths and roads and therefore in contact with the wheels of cars. Centaurea cyanus L. named “Garufanin blô de grén” (blue carnation of the wheat) for it grows in the crop fields, sprinkling them with blue spots. Medicago sativa L. is called “Erba Spagna” (Spanish grass) because during the Middle Ages its cultivation in Europe was almost abandoned, so much so that in Italy it remained unknown until 1500, when it was reintroduced with seeds imported from Spain where it had been spread again by the Arabs. The last group of phytonyms come from the plant smell and include plants like Alliaria petiolata, named “Aj herb” (garlic herb) from its persistent garlic smell, Aloysia citradora called “Erba zidreina” (citrine grass) from the citrus smell given by the leaves when rubbed, Galium odoratum Scop. Called “Stellina odorosa” (fragrant little star) from the shape of the flowers resembling a star and the scent they produce when dried, Helleborus foetidus L. named “Erba zitona” (gypsy grass) with a derogatory connotation, comparing the bad smell of the plant to that of the gypsies, and its toxicity to the fact that one should be careful with this plant as when meeting a gypsy.