A total of 32 useful macromycete species were recorded in the three studied localities, 30 of them are used as food, and two are used as medicine. People in Santa Lucia Teotepec (Chatinos) consume 23 species, in Santo Domingo Chontecomatl (Chontales) people use 16 species, and 6 species are consumed in San Antonio Otate (Chinantecos). 62% of the recorded species were ectomycorrhizal, 34% saprotrophic, and 3% parasitic (Table 3).

Table 3 Wild mushroom species recorded in the studied communities, local indigenous and Spanish names, fungal trophic groups, and local uses

The oldest people in the studied communities have the greatest knowledge on the traditional use of wild mushrooms and are responsible for transmitting this knowledge to younger people. Men collect mushrooms growing in forest areas far from communities, and women and children collect in surrounding lands.

Information from the interviews in the three localities indicated that the harvesting season begins in June and finishes in October. People suggest that most macromycete species produce sporomes within a specific time span during the rainy season, but production may be influenced by environmental variations. They can harvest up to 5 kg of mushrooms in 1 day and classify the species based on the kind of substrata where they grow.

To preserve this non-timber forest product, mushroom pickers apply different traditional methods. To collect ectomycorrhizal species, they cut the stipe to leave the basal part of the stipe in the ground. Additionally, people slightly tap the pileus to help release the spores. In the case of xylophagous fungi, local gatherers avoid removing or disturbing the logs and branches where useful mushrooms have been collected.

People from the three studied groups are aware of the negative effect that deforestation can generate on the fructification rates of species such as Cantharellus cibarius, Amanita spp. and Russula spp., so they conserve harvesting areas by avoiding timber extraction.

Local nomenclature

Every studied ethnic group gives local indigenous and Spanish names to the different macromycete species they know (Table 3). The indigenous names are composed of the word that every community uses for “mushroom”, together with one or two epithets that refer to the morphologic and/or ecological features of the species.

The indigenous word that Chatinos use for “mushroom” is Kía and is used at the beginning of a species name. For example, they consume a Russula species named Kía edjee in the local language, which means “mushroom of salt” because the species has scales on the pileus, and the name in Chatino for scales is salt (edjee). The macrofungal species Pseudofistulina radicata is named Kía jikafkhía because it grows on a woody plant of the genus Diphysa named jikafkhía by locals. Some names are given out of the shape of the mushrooms, for example, the name for Hypomyces lactifluorum is Kía jikie lakie, which means “cockscomb mushroom”. Due to its shape and color, the species Rubroboletus dupainii is named Kía loo, which means “gizzard mushroom” (Fig. 3a). In the Chatino community, the names of the edible Amanita species are trinomials. The names are Kía kuí nga´a (red San Juan mushroom) and Kía kuii gsi (yellow San Juan mushroom) due to their color and because they grow in June, the month of San Juan.

Correspondingly, indigenous names in the Chontal group are given based on the morphologic traits of the species. For example, the color of the species Cantharellus cibarius is yellow, similar to the color of the pumpkin flower, thus, the local name is Jlapilí kahúa, which means “pumpkin mushroom”. The species Lactarius volemus releases latex (white liquid resembling milk) when the sporome is cut, and its indigenous name is Jlapilí fuska-gaja, which means “milk mushroom”. Hydnum repandum is a species with teeth on the hymenium, similar to the cats’ tongue, and its local name is Jlapilí mishto, which means “cat mushroom”.

Chinantecos use binomial and trinomial indigenous names for the mushrooms, and both the morphologic and ecological traits of the species are used to name them. For example, the local name for Pleurotus djamor is Nat majee, which means “jonote mushroom”. Jonote is a tree species (Heliocarpus appendiculatus) that has been observed to be associated with the distribution of P. djamor. The macromycete Schizophyllum radiatum is named Nat logua quiic, which means “lizard hand mushroom” because the sporome resembles a scaly lizard hand. In the three studied indigenous groups, there is a presence on the use of ethnotaxas (a single indigenous name including several macromycete species that are morphologically alike).

Mushroom morphology

Naming the different morphological structures of mushroom sporomes seems irrelevant for Chinantecos and Chatinos. Chinantecos do not have any name for the parts of the sporome. Chatinos have indigenous names for only three parts; the stipe is named Jiaró (paw), the pileus name is Kia or Gnnaro (skull or meat), and the name for the scales is Edjee (salt). The latter is the most important structure because it is useful for distinguishing edible and toxic species (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Local indigenous names of the morphological structures of an agaricoid mushroom recorded in the Chatino and Chontal communities

Differentiating the parts of a sporome is important for Chontales. They have indigenous names for seven structures and use homologies of common things around to name them. For example, the name for the pileus is Tokfke (hat), the hymenium is named Ishik (meat), the stipe is Misk (paw) or Pútok (tronco), the mycelium is Ime (root), and the volva is Jlapié (egg). For Chontales, the annulus is the key structure for determining whether a species is edible because the mushrooms they consume have a large yellow annulus, and the local name for this structure is Galtsoni (briefs) (Fig. 2).

Ethnoecological knowledge about wild mushrooms

Interviewees from the three studied indigenous groups showed to be aware that plants and mushrooms are distinct types of organisms, but they need each other to grow in forests. They mentioned that wild mushrooms play several roles in ecosystem functioning, mainly in processes related to soil fertility. Moreover, people use diverse criteria to classify mushrooms according to their ecological role, and the most used classification is the type of substrate on which they grow.

Regarding mushroom phenology, people in the three indigenous groups mentioned that there are long-availability species, such as Schizophyllum commune and Lentinus crinitus, that grow throughout the complete rainy season, and agricultural activities like the clearcut-and-burn method enhance sporome production in some species. Moreover, they have observed that mushroom production improves in June and September with increasing precipitation.

However, 80% of the interviewees said that the use of agricultural chemical agents, the immoderate felling of trees, and changes in precipitation patterns have led to a decline in sporome production.

To preserve fungal resources, people avoid cutting trees in old forest stands because these areas produce greater amounts of mushrooms, they leave pieces of stipe on the ground to ensure future harvests, and they do not collect mature sporomes to allow the release of seeds (spores).

Medicinal mushrooms

The use of mushrooms in traditional medicine was found only in Santa Lucia Teotepec (Chatinos) and San Antonio Otate (Chinantecos). Chatinos use Psilocybe species in healing and prediction ceremonies. The ceremonies are carried out at night by someone with experience, and the mushrooms are smoked with copal before they are consumed. Chatinos consume two or three sporomes in ceremonies. Once the mushrooms take effect, people hear a voice in their head and ask that voice for answers about how to cure a sickness or solve a problem. Chinantecos use Pycnoporus sanguineus due to its properties to remove skin blemishes by applying the sporome on their face to cover the skin with spores, which are the curative component of the mushroom.

Cultural significance of wild edible mushrooms for the Chatino group

The five macromycete species with the highest cultural significance index for wild edible mushrooms in the Chatino community were “salt mushroom” (Russula sp.1), “bean mushroom” (Russula sp.2), “totomoxtle mushroom” (Pleurotus djamor), “red San Juan mushroom” (Amanita jacksonii) (Fig. 3e), and “cuachepil mushroom” (Pseudofistulina radicata) (Table 4).

Fig. 3

Wild mushrooms of biocultural importance in the Chinanteco, Chontal, and Chatino communities of Oaxaca. The images show a Rubroboletus dupainii, b Favolus tenuiculus, c Pseudofistulina radicata, d stew made with species of the genus Amanita, e Amanita jacksonii, f Pleurotus djamor, g Schizophyllum radicatum, h Ramaria sp., i stew made of Cantharellus cibarius, j Amanita laurae, k Pycnoporus sanguineus, and l Lentinus crinitus

Table 4 Cultural importance of the wild edible mushroom species recorded in the Chatino group

Except for Amanita jacksonii (Fig. 3e), A. laurae (Fig. 3j) and Hypomyces lactifluorum (index values = 5), the local nomenclature index indicated that the names assigned to the mushroom species are not complex because they are composed mainly of morphological traits (Table 4).

The perceived abundance index suggested that Chatinos perceive Hypomyces lactifluorum, Favolus tenuiculus and Ramaria spp. as the most abundant species (index values > 8), whereas Suillus granulatus, Xerocomus sp. and Amanita jacksonii are the least abundant species (index values < 6).

The consumption frequency index showed that all the species are eaten at least once a year, with Hypomyces lactifluorum and Ramaria spp. being the most frequently consumed species (index values > 6).

Regarding the different ways to cook wild mushrooms, the multifunctional food index indicated that all the recorded species, except Laccaria laccata (index value = 2.5), are cooked in at least two ways (index values ≥ 7.5).

The consumption preference index indicated that all mushroom species are prized due to their good flavor. Hypomyces lactiflourum, Pleurotus djamor, Ganoderma sp. and Cantharellus cibarius were the most preferred by Chatinos (index values > 7), whereas Xerocomus sp. and Ramaria spp. were the least preferred.

The low values obtained with the edibility recognition index suggested that identifying edible mushrooms is easy for Chatinos because identification is based mainly on mushroom morphology. In the case of Favolus tenuiculus, identification is more complicated (index value = 10) because it includes the growing habitat, flavor, and smell.

Regarding wild mushroom marketing in the community, the economic index indicated that Lactarius indigo, Schizophyllum radiatum, Ramaria spp., Favolus tenuiculus, and Hypomyces lactiflourum do not represent a sale item (index values = 0). Russula crustosa was the species with the highest value (index value = 2.4), and its price can reach approx. USD$17.5 per kilogram.

The knowledge transmission index indicated that the knowledge on wild edible mushrooms within the Chatino community goes back to at least one generation (index values > 7.5).

Cultural significance of wild edible mushrooms for the Chontal group

The five macromycete species with the highest cultural significance index for wild edible mushrooms in the Chatino community were Laccaria laccata, Amanita laurae, Cantharellus cibarius, Lactarius volemus and Hypomyces lactifluorum (index values > 350). Flavor, multifunctionality, and perceived abundance were the main factors influencing the preference of these species for Chontales (Table 5).

Table 5 Cultural importance of wild edible mushrooms in the Chontal group

The local nomenclature index suggested that all the local names given to the mushroom species are comprised of two terms (index values = 2.5), and the myconomies assigned to the species are based on morphological traits.

Boletus sp., Pseudofistulina radicata, and Hygrophorus russula are perceived as the most abundant mushroom species and as the easiest to find in the forest based on the perceived abundance index (values = 10). The rarest species was Calvatia sp. (index value = 2.5). The remaining species had values indicating they are not rare and easily found (Table 5).

The values calculated with the consumption frequency index indicated that most species are consumed at least twice a year (index values ≥ 7.5), but the species Calvatia sp. Boletus sp., Hydnum repandum and Pseudofistulina radicata are consumed more than four times in the year (index values = 10). Hygrophorus russula and Neolentinus ponderosus are consumed once a year (values = 5 and 6, respectively) (Table 5).

The multifunctional food index indicated that all the recorded species in the Chontal community are cooked in at least two ways (index values ≥ 5).

Except for Pleurotus djamor, the values calculated with the consumption preference index suggested that Chontales appreciate most of the mushroom species due to their good flavor (index values ≥ 9). People in the community do not completely appreciate the flavor of P. dejamor (index value = 6) (Table 5).

The values obtained with the edibility recognition index for all the wild edible mushroom species known by Chontales indicated that people collect those mushrooms with confidence that all of them are edible species (index values 3.3).

The economic index showed that only Lactarius volemus, Laccaria laccata and Hypomyces lactifluorum are commercialized by Chontales (index values = 1.1, 0.5 and 0.6, respectively). The price of these mushroom species can vary from approx. USD$5.8 to $8.8 per kilogram depending on their abundance along the rainy season.

The knowledge transmission index values indicated that the knowledge on wild edible mushrooms within the Chontal community goes back to at least one generation (index values ≥ 7.5).

Cultural significance of wild edible mushrooms for the Chinanteco group

In the Chinanteco community, people consume only five mushroom species. Pleurotus djamor (Fig. 3f) is the most important species in this community, with 513.62 in the cultural significance index for wild edible mushrooms, whereas Sparassis crispa is the least important with an index value = 45.37 (Table 6).

Table 6 Cultural importance of wild edible mushrooms in the Chinanteco group

All the mushrooms consumed in this community have indigenous names. The local nomenclature index showed that the local names for Lentinus crinitus and Schizophyllum radiatum are comprised of three terms (index values = 7.5), and the names for the rest of the mushrooms are comprised of two terms (index values = 5) (Table 6).

The perceived abundance index indicated that Pleurotus djamor and Lentinus crinitus are the most abundant species, however, the classification used to calculate the index suggested that those species are in a medium level of abundance (index values < 7.5). Sparassis crispa was the rarest species according to the Chinanteco people (index value = 2.5).

The consumption frequency index suggested that Sparassis crispa and an unidentified Tricholomataceae species are not consumed every year (index values < 3.75) and the other mushrooms are consumed at least once a year (values > 5) (Table 6).

The multifunctional food index indicated that the mushroom species consumed by locals are cooked in at least one way (index values > 3).

The values obtained with the consumption preference index indicated that all the species are consumed due to their good flavor (index values ≥ 8).

Pleurotus djamor is the only species commercialized in the Chinanteco community and obtained a high economic index (index value = 6.6) (Table 6). The price of this mushroom can reach more than USD$11.5 per kilogram.

The knowledge transmission index indicated that the knowledge on wild edible mushrooms in the Chinanteco community goes back to at least one generation (index values ≥ 7.5). Sparassis crispa is not a species traditionally consumed by Chinantecos, it was introduced to the community by external people, however, it is the only species known from at least two generations back (index value = 10).

Distribution of traditional knowledge about wild edible mushrooms in the Chatino, Chontal, and Chinanteco groups.

The linear regression analyses indicated that the number of wild edible mushrooms identified by the interviewed people in the three studied groups was negatively related to their level of schooling (r2 = 0.07, F = 5.85, p = 0.017; Fig. 4a) and positively related to their age (r2 = 0.19, F = 19.2, p < 0.0001; Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4

Linear regression analysis. The number of known mushroom species recorded in the three studied communities relates to a the level of schooling of men and women, b the age of men and women, c the age of men, d the level of schooling of women, and e the age of women

The number of mushroom species known by all the men in the three studied groups was not significantly related to their level of schooling (p > 0.5) but was positively related to their age (r2 = 0.15, F = 6.7, p = 0.011; Fig. 4c). However, the number of species known by the women was negatively related to their level of schooling (r2 = 0.12, F = 5.4, p = 0.02; Fig. 4d), and positively related to their age (r2 = 0.25, F = 13.6, p < 0.0001; Fig. 4e).

In the Chatino group, the knowledge about mushroom species obtained from all the interviewees was negatively related to their level of schooling (r2 = 0.17, F = 11.94, p = 0.001; Fig. 5a), and positively related to their age (r2 = 0.35, F = 33.1, p < 0.0001; Fig. 5b). Similarly, the number of species known by both men and women in the Chatino community was negatively related to their level of schooling (r2 = 0.13, F = 4.3, p = 0.04; r2 = 0.2, F = 7.41, p = 0.01, respectively; Fig. 5c, d), and positively related to their age (r2 = 0.45, F = 24.6, p < 0.0001; r2 = 0.27, F = 10.63, p = 0.002, respectively; Fig. 5e, f). The number of wild edible mushrooms known by the people from the Chontal and Chinanteco groups was not significantly related to their level of schooling or age (p > 0.5).

Fig. 5

Linear regression analysis. The number of known mushroom species recorded in the Chatino community relates to a the level of schooling of men and women, b the age of men and women, c the level of schooling of the men, d the level of schooling of women, e the age of men, and f the age of women

The ANOVA indicated highly significant differences between the Chatino, Chontal, and Chinanteco groups regarding the number of mushrooms they know and use (F = 10.9, p < 0.0001). Tukey’s test showed that the main difference is between the Chatino and Chinanteco groups (p < 0.0001), followed by the Chatino and Chontales groups (p = 0.02). Similarly, the NMDS indicated that the Chinanteco group is clearly separated from the Chatino and Chontal groups along Axis 1 due to differences in the composition of the species they use (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6

Non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis. Group 1 (Chatinos), Group 2 (Chontales), and Group 3 (Chinantecos). The distance between groups represents the similarity in the species composition they consume

The t test indicated that there are no significant differences between men and women regarding the number of useful mushroom species they know, the results were analyzed both for the three study groups together and for each group individually (p > 0.05; Fig. 7a–d). However, the ANCOVAs controlling for level of schooling and age in the three groups together and in the Chatino group showed that there is a significant difference between men and women in terms of the number of mushroom species they know after controlling for age (F = 18.86, p < 0.0001; F = 32.32, p < 0.0001, respectively); however, the difference was not significant in the Chinanteco and Chontal groups (p > 0.05).

Fig. 7

Student’s t test. Differences in the number of mushroom species known by a men and women in the three communities, b men and women in the Chatino group, c men and women in the Chontal group, and d men and women in the Chinanteco group. There are no significant differences between men and women regarding the number of useful mushroom species they know