Characteristics of informants

This study was carried out in 10 Gelao villages across northern Guizhou, gathering data from 50 credible informants. These individuals were adept in providing insights into the usage of animal-derived medicines among the Gelao, encompassing both herbal doctors and medicinal material traders, averaging about 5 informants per village. All 50 participants had firsthand experience with Gelao traditional therapies. Informed consent was secured from each participant prior to the interviews, and they duly signed the consent forms. The survey spanned across 4 villages each in Daozhen and Wuchuan Counties, and 2 villages each in Zhengan and Fenggang Counties (refer to Table 1).

Table 1 Basic information of study areas

The survey revealed that female informants could recognize an average of 17 different animal-derived medicines, whereas male informants identified around 28 on average. This finding starkly contrasts with our earlier survey conducted in the multi-ethnic areas at the junction of Gansu, Ningxia, and Inner Mongolia [51]. In Gelao societies, traditional doctors are predominantly male. However, female informants play a vital role in supporting these traditional doctors in disease treatment and also as recipients of medicinal knowledge.

Shows their ages varied from 34 to 89 years. The age distribution was as follows: 4 informants were under 40, 11 were aged 40–45, 12 between 46 and 55, another 11 between 56 and 65, and 12 were above 65 years of age. The gender breakdown included 27 males and 23 females, yielding a male-to-female ratio of 1.17:1. Of these informants, 45 were from the Gelao ethnic group, comprising 90% of the total, along with 3 Miao and 2 Han informants. The study also found that older informants possessed a deeper understanding of traditional medicines. While some knowledge of traditional animal-derived medicines was acquired from informants under 45, those actively involved in traditional Gelao medical practices were typically over 55. Also, these Gelao doctors generally had a lower level of formal education, mostly not exceeding high school, and with increasing age, their experience became richer, but their educational level remained relatively low (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Demographic profile of informants. A Age structure. B Gender ratio. C Ethnicity ratio

Animal-derived medicines used by the Gelao community

Our study identified a total of 55 varieties of animal-derived medicines used by the Gelao community, detailed in Table 2. This includes 33 types of wild animal-based substances, covering 29 distinct families, and 22 varieties derived from domestic animals, belonging to 13 different families (Fig. 3A). The categorization of these medicines is as follows: 22 types utilizing the entire animal, mostly small insects (e.g., Dinidoridae (Stål, 1867), Lytta vesicatoria (Linnaeus, 1758), Carabidae (Latreille, 1802)), mollusks (e.g., Lumbricina), arthropods (e.g., Scolopendra subspinipes (Leach, 1815)), and aquatic animals (e.g., Muraena alba (Zuiew, 1793), Andrias davidianus (Blanchard, 1871)). Typically, these are either dried or cooked whole before medicinal use, or combined with other substances, and are known for their efficacy in dispelling wind, alleviating pain and swelling, and detoxifying and killing insects. Nine types involve the use of organs (e.g., Dendroaspis polylepis (Günther, 1864), Ursus thibetanus (G. Baron Cuvier, 1823), Gallus gallus, Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758)), typically processed after extraction for clearing heat, detoxification, benefiting gallbladder and diuresis, and improving vision. Nine types include the use of bones and horns (e.g., Cervus canadensis (Erxleben, 1777), Capra hircus (Linnaeus, 1758), Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758)), usually ground into powder or slices for strengthening qi and blood, fortifying muscles and bones, and nourishing yin and moistening dryness. Ten types involve physiological products (e.g., Bombyx mori (Linnaeus, 1758), Bos taurus (Linnaeus, 1758)), typically collected or extracted for clearing heat, resolving phlegm, stopping coughs, and nourishing and beautifying. Five other types are also mentioned (Fig. 3B).

Table 2 Animal-derived medicines used by the Gelao peopleFig. 3

Gelao community’s use of animal-derived medicines. A Types of medicines. B Methods of medicine application

The majority of these medicinal products are derived from locally sourced animals. However, certain items, like Elephant skin, are not presently traceable to local origins. These animal-derived medicines significantly influence the daily lives of the Gelao community. Notably, many of these materials are integral to the Gelao’s traditional diet, including some now-banned animals like Bears and Tigers, previously relished as delicacies. This is similarly true for certain snakes; despite stringent protection measures, the Gelao still procure various snakes for consumption, medicinal purposes, or liquor infusion. Presently, the Gelao mainly utilize animal-derived medicines comprising non-strictly protected insects and derivatives of domestic animals, occupying a vital position in their traditional medicinal practices and cultural heritage (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

Representative Medicine Specimens. A Ptyas dhumnades (Cantor, 1842): Commonly known as black-striped snake. B Snake Slough: Shed skin of snakes. C Inner membrane of chicken gizzard. D Cicada Slough: Shed exoskeleton of cicadas. E Coridius chinensis (Dallas, 1851): A species of beetle used in traditional medicine. F Catharsius molossus (Linnaeus, 1758). G Bombyx morio (Linnaeus, 1767): The entire body of the larval stage of the domestic silkworm moth, Bombyx mori L., infected by the Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. H Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa spps): A type of cricket used in traditional remedies. I, J Hives of wild bees. K Ground Beetle (Eupolyphaga sinensis (Walker, 1868)): Dried bodies of female Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker or Steleophaga Plancyi (Boleny). L Ootheca mantidis (Paratenodera sinensis (Saussure, 1871)): Dried oothecae of Tenodera sinensis Saussure, Statilia maculata (Thunberg), or Hierodula patellifera (Serville). M Tortoise Shell (Mauremys reevesii (Gray, 1831)). N Trionyx sinensis Shell (Pelodiscus sinensis (Wiegmann, 1834)). O Buffalo Horn (Bubalus bubalis (Linnaeus, 1758)). P Goral Horn (Naemorhedus goral (Hardwicke, 1825)). Q Centipede (Scolopendra subspinipes (Leach, 1815)). R Leech (Hirudo (Linnaeus, 1758))

The utilization and production of animal-derived medicines among the Gelao community

The Gelao community extensively utilizes a diverse range of animal-derived medicines, including insects, mollusks, reptiles, fish, amphibians, birds, mammals, and an assortment of physiological and pathological products sourced from these creatures. The procurement of these medicinal animals is multifaceted: Wild Capture (Leveraging the natural environment, the Gelao community utilize a variety of methods to sustainably capture wild animals for both medicinal and culinary applications). Domestic Breeding (In addition to food production, the Gelao engage in the breeding of animals, harnessing their blood, meat, skin, bones, horns, and certain organs and secretions for medicinal purposes). Market Purchase (Animal medicines are frequently acquired at rural markets, typically sold by seasoned herbalists, and are widely used within the farming community for the treatment of prevalent ailments).

The Gelao community adheres to specific standards and methodologies in the preparation and application of animal-derived medicines. Their processing techniques include a series of steps such as killing, cleaning, drying, crushing, decocting, soaking, and grinding. These medicines are processed variably, contingent on their inherent properties and intended uses. For example, insects are generally scalded and dried to expedite dehydration and avert egg hatching, akin to the treatment of gallnuts; physiological and pathological products, like silkworm feces and cicada slough, are typically cleaned and directly dried. Valuable substances, such as bear and snake bile, are often air-dried to preserve their medicinal virtues, in contrast to larger animals which are eviscerated before drying.

The Gelao community demonstrates extensive knowledge and established principles in the dosing and combination of animal-derived medicines. Dosages are meticulously tailored based on the severity of the condition, the patient’s age, and their overall health, typically prescribed one to three times daily, with each dose ranging from three to ten grams. The composition of these medicines follows the traditional ‘Monarch, Minister, Assistant, and Guide’ principle, which considers their properties, effectiveness, and channel tropisms, as well as their potential synergistic or antagonistic effects, to enhance therapeutic efficacy and minimize side effects. The selection and application of these medicines vary markedly among practitioners, reflecting their individual experience and expertise. The administration methods are customized according to the specific nature and intended use of the medicines, encompassing oral routes (including decoctions, tinctures, powders, pills, and pastes), topical applications (such as direct application, patches, washes, and fumigation), and inhalation methods, particularly for respiratory ailments, headaches, and toothaches.

Our survey catalogued 55 traditional medicinal remedies exhibiting a broad spectrum of effects and indications (Table 3), primarily distributed across ten categories: 13 for pediatric disorders, including silkworm pupae for food stagnation and cicada slough for diarrhea in children; 11 for internal medicine conditions, such as stiff silkworm for cough and asthma; 3 for gynecological issues, like soft-shelled turtle shell for uterine prolapse; 7 for dermatological conditions, including elephant skin for skin ulcers and blister beetles for various skin diseases; 3 for otorhinolaryngological disorders, such as eel for facial paralysis; 5 for trauma care, like cuttlefish bone for bleeding injuries; 5 for alleviating pain in the neck, shoulders, waist, and hip joints, such as viper for rheumatic joint pain; 1 for urinary and bladder stone disorders, like mole cricket; 2 for infectious diseases, such as cockroach for swelling and toxicity; and 2 for dental pain, like gallnuts for toothaches. Additionally, some medicines are primarily used for nourishment and the treatment of other specific diseases (Fig. 5).

Table 3 Comparison of traditional usage of mineral medicines by the Gelao people with other ethnic applications and modern pharmacological researchFig. 5

Efficacy of animal-derived medicines used by the Gelao community

Quantitative evaluation of animal-derived medicines used by the Gelao community

In this study, we sought to assess the diversity, significance, and uniformity in the use of animal-based medicines within the Gelao community. Data gathered from 10 villages were analyzed, focusing on the concepts of evenness, richness, and similarity in medicinal knowledge. Evenness, which denotes the distribution of medicinal information, and richness, referring to the total amount of such information, are key indicators in this context. The Shannon Wiener Index (H′) was used to measure evenness, and the Simpson Index (D) for richness, as illustrated in Fig. 6A and B. The Shannon Wiener Index showed variations from 3.4873 to 4.1883, and the Simpson Index from 0.0163 to 0.0220, demonstrating high levels of both evenness and richness in the Gelao’s use of animal-based medicines, indicative of their extensive knowledge and application of such resources. Notably, Village 1 had the highest Shannon Wiener Index (4.1883) and the lowest Simpson Index (0.0163), implying a well-distributed and least concentrated knowledge base, suggesting a balanced dissemination of information. Conversely, Village 10, with the lowest Shannon Wiener Index (3.4873) and the second highest Simpson Index (0.0218), exhibited the least dispersion and highest concentration of knowledge, indicating an unbalanced distribution. Overall, barring Village 1, the evenness of information among the remaining nine villages was relatively consistent, reflecting a shared understanding in the use of animal-based medicines across these Gelao communities.

Fig. 6

Analysis of animal-derived medicines usage in different Gelao villages. A Simpson Index: evaluates the uniformity of the usage of animal-derived medicines among different Gelao villages. B Shannon–Wiener Index: assess the richness of information regarding animal-derived medicinals used by the Gelao people across different villages. C Sorenson Index: evaluate the similarity of the medicinal usage information across different Gelao villages

To evaluate the similarity of medicinal knowledge across the villages, the Sorenson Index (CS) was employed. This index measures the degree of shared knowledge among communities, with a higher index signifying more similarity in medicinal practices. As shown in Fig. 6C, the Sorenson Index ranged from 0.84 to 0.99, indicating a significant uniformity in the data across the 10 villages. This uniformity likely stems from the closely connected nature of the Gelao communities in northern Guizhou. The highest similarity was observed between Villages 5 and 7 (0.99), which are geographically close, whereas the lowest was between Villages 8 and 10 (0.84), further apart, suggesting that geographical proximity influences the homogeneity of medicinal knowledge among the Gelao.

To assess the cultural significance of animal-derived medicines in the Gelao community, we implemented the National Cultural Significance Index (NCSI). This index gauges the role and relevance of these medicines in traditional Gelao healthcare, with a higher NCSI denoting greater significance and acceptance. Our analysis encompassed 55 animal-derived medicines traditionally utilized by the indigenous Gelao residents. Figure 7 presents the NCSI comparisons of these medicines, allowing us to categorize them based on their usage frequency, value, and role in local healthcare practices.

Fig. 7

Importance Indices for Animal-Derived Medicinals Used by the Gelao community. (FQI is the frequency of quotation index. AI is the availability index. FUI is the frequency of utilization index. PUI is the parts used index. MFI is the multifunctional use index. CEI is the curative effect index. DSI is the drug safety index. NCSI is the national cultural significance index)

Medicines ranking highest in importance (NCSI > 500) comprise 9 varieties, including honey, cinnabar, Blister Beetles, Chicken gizzard, and various snake medicines. These share traits such as regional availability, proven effectiveness, and relative safety, continuing to be integral to the Gelao community’s health regimen, with many being consumable. The second tier (500 > NCSI ≥ 100) features 16 types like Ground Beetles, gallnuts, cicada slough, etc., frequently used in traditional Gelao medicine, though less often due to their limited culinary applications. The third category (100 > NCSI ≥ 10) includes 19 diverse types, exemplified by medicines like mole cricket, water buffalo horn, etc. The final tier (10 > NCSI) encompasses 11 types, characterized by infrequent use, toxicity, or prohibition, often involving protected species.

The Utilization Frequency (HUF) of medicines ranges from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 1. The medicinal with the lowest HUF, at 0, is Elephant Skin, for which we obtained only minimal information from the literature. None of the 50 informants in our field study provided any related information. We specifically inquired about Elephant Skin with the local residents, and all informants indicated a lack of familiarity with this medicinal. The highest HUF value, at 1, indicates unanimous reporting by all informants, which was the case for Honey and Cicada Slough. The widespread practice of beekeeping among local residents accounts for the high frequency of Honey, while the abundance of Cicada Slough may be related to the local climate being humid and the forests dense, providing a rich resource of snakes (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

The utilization frequency evaluation of animal-derived medicines among the Gelao people. (The horizontal axis quantifies the Utilization Frequency (HUF) of animal-derived medicines, representing the number of times different medicinal substances have been documented in use within the community. The vertical axis enumerates the variety of animal-derived medicinal substances employed, underscores the reliance on and diversity of animal resources in the traditional medical practices of the Gelao people.)

Investigating the use and pharmacological research of animal-derived medicines by the Gelao community

Our research delved into the properties, activities, and applications in Traditional Chinese Medicine and other ethnic practices of animal-derived medicines traditionally employed by the Gelao. Through a literature review of 55 traditional Gelao medicines (Table 3), we discovered unique ethnic attributes in these remedies, demonstrating the Gelao’s profound understanding and use of natural resources. Despite some influences from Traditional Chinese Medicine and modern therapeutics, these medicines maintain their distinctive ethnic identity. Among them, 37 (67.3%) are listed in the ‘Chinese Pharmacopoeia,’ with the remaining 18 (32.7%) being exclusive to the Gelao or shared with other ethnic groups, including medicines like woodpeckers, centipedes, scorpions, eels, Chicken gizzard, and leeches. This highlights the Gelao’s unique approach to using animal-derived medicines and their cultural exchanges with other ethnicities.

A comparative analysis of the Gelao’s traditional medicinal applications and their modern clinical uses revealed a scientific basis for their ethnically unique treatments. Among the 55 medicines, 38 (69.1%) have pharmacological properties and clinical applications aligning with the treatments prescribed by Gelao doctors. For instance, Lin et al. [52] achieved better therapeutic effects in treating facial paralysis using acupuncture and external application of eel blood compared to acupuncture alone, consistent with the Gelao’s use of eel for treating facial asymmetry. The Gelao use Chicken gizzard to treat indigestion, and Yang et al. [53] found that its application in children with gastrointestinal syndrome primarily presenting with diarrhea had a good clinical effect, being fast-acting and requiring a short treatment period, related to its ability to improve gastrointestinal function. The Gelao’s use of Cow bezoar and Snake gallbladder to treat children’s colds, coughs, and fevers is related to their anti-inflammatory and sedative properties [54]. Using leeches for treating pain from bone fractures is related to the anticoagulant activity of hirudin in leeches, which effectively eliminates blood stasis [55].

The pharmacological activities of 17 medicines (30.9%) differ from their traditional Gelao applications. Some of these have been confirmed by modern pharmacological research for their active components and mechanisms of action. For example, hedgehogs are used for peptic ulcers [56] and burns [57], but the Gelao use them for treating leukorrhea, and the anti-inflammatory properties of hedgehog skin could be related to treating these conditions, indicating these medicines have unique potential research value. Additionally, we compared representative patent medicines for the 55 medicines, finding that 44 (80%) of these medicines’ treated symptoms were consistent with Gelao doctors’ applications, while 11 (20%) had slight discrepancies. This also illustrates the scientific nature of the Gelao doctors’ medication practices.

The traditional application of animal-derived medicines by the Gelao is an important part of their cultural heritage, a precious asset accumulated and passed down through long-term production and life practices. These medicines not only reflect the Gelao’s understanding and utilization of nature but also their interaction and borrowing from other ethnic groups. The material basis, biological activity, and application in Traditional Chinese Medicine and among other minorities of these medicines warrant further research and development, to promote the development and protection of Gelao ethnic medicine.