1. IntroductionSince its outbreak in Wuhan, China, in late December 2019, the COVID-19 disease has affected virtually all people worldwide. As of 19 September 2022, there have been around 618.2 million positive cases, 6.5 million deaths, and 598.1 million recovered patients [1]. As a result, different countries were forced to implement World Health Organization (WHO) emergency protocols, which include limitations on nonessential individual movements and social activities. Meanwhile, thousands of critically ill COVID-19 patients are currently in hospital, and many families have lost their relatives [2]. The pandemic has also affected physical and mental health and societal well-being [3,4,5], triggered a socioeconomic crisis, and inflicted profound psychological distress on people worldwide [2]. It has also altered societal living conditions, which became a challenge to health experts’ agenda [6] affected well-being [2], socioeconomic conditions, and the education system [7,8], and increased cases of suicide [9].In the outbreak of infectious disease, frontline health workers [3] and teachers at all school levels worldwide are significantly affected [10,11,12]. The pandemic’s impact has been substantial, especially on education. For instance, a study on how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected tertiary education students in Bangladesh revealed many unexpected interruptions in students’ learning; low motivation; and economic, physical, and mental problems [11]. Specifically, the effect of this crisis on higher education has been an overlooked but potentially important issue [13], with profound outcomes among frontline workers of higher-education institutions [1]. The closure of universities worldwide and the implementation of learning, teaching, and assessment on online platforms have caused changes to teachers’ well-being [1].The COVID-19 disease has had an adverse effect on teachers’ well-being (TWB) globally, a profound issue that is expected to lead to short-, medium-, and long-term consequences for different actors and organizations [13]. Stress among teachers can be caused by amplified media exposure, the implementation of school closures, social distancing, and home quarantine [14]; and the stoppage of face-to-face teaching in higher education [13]. According to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) [15], hundreds of millions of students, teachers, and national education planners have felt the impact of COVID-19, which has not been immediately visible but is expected to surface in the medium and long term [13]. A study conducted in the Philippines showed that more than half of Filipino teachers suffered from moderate COVID-19 stress, found that health status had a negative relation with COVID-19 stress, and observed that the participants experienced greater stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic [12].Ethiopia, the second most populous country in Africa, has also been greatly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic [16]. The first COVID-19-positive case in the country was officially confirmed on 13 March 2020, and in April 2020, schools, which were considered the most vulnerable sector, officially closed [17]. The effects of the outbreak were felt throughout the education sector, which discontinued teaching/learning activities for more than six months after the peak of the outbreak’s first phase. In October 2020, the government reopened schools and implemented preventive measures as recommended by the WHO. Higher-education students, especially those at the PhD and master levels, attended classes by following social distancing protocols, wearing masks, and using sanitizers, and sometimes continued their education through online platforms such as Zoom, e-mail, and Skype. For teachers in universities with poor infrastructure access, such as in Africa, these new technologies can be a problem. Only a few universities in Ethiopia [11,13] had worked with online platforms such as Skype, e-mail, and Zoom [11,18]. In Ethiopia, only a few studies have focused on the COVID-19 pandemic. These studies have examined perceived work-related stress and associated factors among public secondary school teachers [19], the validity of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in the Amharic language [20], the impact of COVID-19 on private higher education [16], and perceived stress and its associated factors among healthcare workers [21]. Unlike these studies, our research is unique in that it investigates the integrated novel framework of the positive emotion, engagement in life and work, positive relationships, meaning in life, and work accomplishments (PERMA) positive well-being model [22], the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions [23], the resilience theory [24]; and the impact of COVID-19 on higher education [13]. In today’s higher-education sector, examining how TWB is influenced by COVID-19 stress and protected by one’s sense of coherence (SOC) and resilience is relevant. These studies have established a strong scientific groundwork, but they have yet to conduct a further psychometric inquiry on the Perceived Stress Scale of COVID-19, the Sense of Coherence scale, the Brief Resilience Scale, the PERMA-Profiler Questionnaire, and the mediation role of resilience and SOC between COVID-19 and TWB in higher education is crucial. Hence, this study aimed to determine the possible positive psychological resources (resilience, SOC, the PERMA positive well-being model) to manage COVID-19 stress and work during the pandemic. The following section explains the scientific evidence of the current study’s conceptual model and their respective relations. 1.1. The Relation between COVID-19 Stress and Well-BeingRecent literature has shown a decline in TWB throughout the COVID-19 pandemic period [25,26]. The pandemic has had a significant impact on well-being, causing people to experience anxiety, fear, and stress [27]. In line with this, ref.[25] added that all teachers have been worried about their families’ health and well-being during the pandemic. Additionally, their longitudinal research using a French sample [28] found that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced people’s well-being and relationships in many ways and was negatively associated with well-being [29].Nowadays, as millions of people worldwide are beginning to overcome the isolation caused by the pandemic, the development of positivism plays many crucial roles in one’s mental health [30]. Indeed, ref.[31] argued for a possible positive association between the COVID-19 pandemic and the PERMA model. It has been established that negative and positive emotions are two sides of the same coin and are everyday events. Some studies have assessed the proportion of negative and positive emotions experienced by an individual [32]. People who exhibit more positive emotions than negative emotions flourish in life and are satisfied with it, feel a sense of fulfillment, and could effectively recover from stressful situations [22,32]. In this regard, positive psychology, pioneered by Martin Seligman the founder of positive psychology is the scientific study of leading a meaningful life [33]; to increase individual happiness [33,34] and lower employee stress [35]. Currently, Seligman’s modern positive psychology theory has a considerable impact on health workers [36,37], teachers [38,39], organizations [40,41], and individuals [42,43]. Based on the above evidence, this study proposed the PERMA positive well-being model, a multidirectional construct, as a framework to evaluate the nature of teachers’ work-life balance to lower their stress levels during the pandemic. A study by [22] argued that human success or pleasure is ultimately the result of the interactions and capabilities of the five pillars of the PERMA model (positive emotion, engagement in life and work, positive relationships, meaning in life, and work accomplishments) [44]. 1.2. The Relation between COVID-19 Stress, Resilience and SOCThe COVID-19 pandemic has had an adverse effect on people’s psychological well-being, which is complicated by the fact that teaching is one of the most stressful professions [45,46]. The authors of [45] found that resilience and SOC are the best personal resources that may safeguard ego strength and lower stress levels and are essential during the COVID-19 pandemic. They are also the most critical psychological constructs that substantially support an individual’s well-being and functioning level while under severe stress [45,46,47,48].Resilience refers to an individual’s mental strength and involves their ability to adapt to or overcome adversity or stress [45,49]. Several studies have explored the benefits of resilience, such as reduced individual COVID-19-related stress [47], a negative association with the fear of COVID-19, a positive impact on life satisfaction [48], physical and psychological adjustment [45,49], enhanced positive emotions rather than negative ones [50], increased happiness, lower stress levels, better recovery from symptoms of schizophrenia and depression [45], and disease resistance [51]. Remarkably, individuals who display altruistic behavior, positive emotions, hope, and cognitive flexibility have been described under challenging conditions throughout history and have been associated with resilience methods for overcoming adversity [47,52].SOC is another considerable positive personal resource for teachers to overcome stress during the pandemic. According to [53] SOC pertains to an individual’s toughness and capacity to respond to adverse situations. It also refers to a stable disposition across one’s life span [54] that could help professionals understand the situation as clear and reasonable, adaptable, and meaningful, which enables their resilience [45]. Scholars have observed a negative relation between COVID-19-related traumatic distress and SOC [55,56]. SOC can reduce depression, stress, and anxiety [45] and is a predictor of quality of life and emotional distress [57]. Similarly, a negative association has been found between psychological distress and SOC whereas a positive relation has been observed between SOC and resilience [45,56,57,58]. Furthermore, SOC mediates the relationship between adverse experiences and positive well-being and plays a protective and mediating role between stressors and positive well-being [53,59,60]. The above evidence leads us to believe that SOC and resilience function as buffers and play a significant role in lowering frustration and stress and boosting TWB during the COVID-19 pandemic. 1.3. The Relation between SOC, Resilience, and Teacher Well-BeingSOC is a construct made up of three dimensions: comprehensibility, meaningfulness, and manageability [53,55]. Individuals with a higher SOC are better able to understand themselves and their social surroundings, reduce negative feelings, improve their overall physical health, reduce stress, and promote general well-being [46,59]. Furthermore, researchers discovered a substantiated, positive, and significant relationship between SOC and well-being, as well as a negative association with its negative outcomes [53,61,62,63,64]. Based on the preceding literature, this study regarded SOC as a critical strategy for reducing COVID-19 stress among teachers, as well as a mediator between COVID-19 stress and TWB. The purpose of this study was to investigate the roles of SOC and resilience as mediators between COVID-19 stress and TWB. It also looked at how COVID-19 stress, SOC, and resilience affected TWB.Resilience is a potentially protective psychological resource that leads to long-term gains, allows recovery from life stressors, increases work and life satisfaction, builds social capital, aids in the acquisition of new knowledge and experiences, fosters better relationships with others, and promotes the search for a life purpose [47]. It also serves as a positive psychological mechanism that helps prevent harm, overcomes or compensates for risks [24], enables individuals to recover quickly and effectively from stressful experiences [45], and allows them to adjust to adversity in a favorable and positive manner [59]. Indeed, [24] created the resilience theory, which is applicable and necessary to everyday skills, all age groups, and all psychological situations. Meanwhile, [23,58] proposed the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, arguing that resilient individuals use positive emotions as core resources to rebound and find a purpose in life during stressful situations [60]. According to this model, resilience, as an intervention strategy that cultivates positive emotions, is more than just a method for healing and protecting oneself from pathology and distress [58,59].In terms of the relationship between resilience and well-being, [45,61] contends that higher levels of resilience and optimism are strongly associated with higher levels of positive well-being or happiness and lower levels of stress. According to [13], the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted teachers’ work-life balance and well-being. Furthermore, [61,62] discovered a strong interaction between stress, resilience, and well-being, and that resilience and low stress were important predictors of well-being. As a result, current research and policy would benefit from a study that investigates the relationship between resilience and positive well-being among teachers during the pandemic. Due to the fact of the urgency of the COVID-19 issue, this study examined the role of SOC and resilience [63,64,65] as well as the PERMA positive well-being model [31] in fostering TWB in order to investigate the direct and indirect effects of the core constructs during the pandemic. Additionally, the tools employed in this study were originally created for use in other cultural contexts. However, before performing mediation analysis in the current study, the measures were customized and validated for Ethiopian (African) culture. As a result, measurement invariance across socio-demographic characteristics and cross-cultural validation are also required [66,67,68]. Consequently, based on the latest scientific literature and the constructed theoretical framework in Figure 1, this study proposed the following hypotheses:Hypothesis 1 (H1):

COVID-19 stress would have a negative association with SOC, resilience, and TWB.

Hypothesis 2 (H2):

Resilience and SOC as psychological resources and a lower level of COVID-19 stress would be linked with higher positive TWB.

Hypothesis 3 (H3):

COVID-19 stress would directly and negatively influence SOC, resilience, and TWB.

Hypothesis 4 (H4):

SOC and resilience would directly and positively affect TWB.

Hypothesis 5 (H5): SOC and resilience would mediate the relation between COVID-19 stress and TWB (see Figure 1). 4. Discussion

This study validates the COVID-19 Perceived Stress Scale, the Sense of Coherence Scale, the Brief Resilience Scale, and the PERMA Profiler Questionnaire. This study verified the measuring model’s convergent and discriminant validity to ensure validity. Prior to evaluating the mediation model, Cronbach alpha and composite reliability were used to assess the reliability of each of the four key constructs. The normality distribution, inter-item correlation, Cronbach alpha, and composite reliability of the COVID-19 Perceived Stress Scale, Sense of Coherence Scale, Brief Resilience Scale, and PERMA Profiler Questionnaire, as well as construct validity, convergent, discriminant, and measurement invariances, are investigated in Ethiopian Amharic. As a preliminary analysis, the measurements must be cross-culturally confirmed using a self-reported instrument. A number of scientific analyses were used to evaluate the COVID-19 Perceived Stress Scale, the Sense of Coherence Scale, the Brief Resilience Scale, and the PERMA Profiler Questionnaire in Ethiopian Amharic. This investigation validated the tools’ good psychometric properties. These measures are used internationally and across various cultures. The construct validity of the COVID-19 Perceived Stress Scale, Sense of Coherence Scale, Brief Resilience Scale, and PERMA-Profiler Questionnaire was investigated using CFA analysis. Furthermore, the structural model used in this study looked at how COVID-19 stress affected TWB both directly and indirectly via SOC and resilience. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no findings in the field of education, particularly with regard to university teachers, have been found. The originality stems from its assessment of the possible role of SOC and resilience in promoting positive well-being and lowering COVID-19 stress.

Indeed, it has become relevant in today’s higher education to conduct a study on the contemporary global issue of COVID-19 and its association with TWB, SOC, and resilience by establishing a new model that integrates PERMA positive well-being theory [22], salutogenesis theoretical approach [74], resilience theory [24], and the impact of COVID-19 on higher education [13].Regarding the first hypothesis, we examined whether COVID-19 stress is correlated with SOC, resilience, and TWB and found that such a correlation was negative and significant. This indicates that SOC, resilience, and TWB are negatively associated with COVID-19 stress; that is, teachers with a high level of SOC (manageability, comprehensibility, and meaning in life), resilience, and positive well-being experience reduced effects of COVID-19 stress. This is corroborated by the findings in the scientific literature [45,53,54,55,56,57,62,63,90]. Overall, SOC, resilience, and positive well-being as integrated resources are useful in minimizing COVID-19 stress in one’s professional and everyday life.For the second hypothesis, we examined the levels of the studied variables using standardized cut-off points and average means and standard deviations. We found that the highest scores were for resilience (26.7 out of 30, SD = 3.81) and SOC (56.2 out of 91, SD = 8.60), followed by TWB (72.5 out of 150, SD = 20.83), while the lower score was for COVID-19 stress (mean = 22.86, SD = 10.14). These findings support Hypothesis 2 and are consistent with those of [53,56], argued that SOC is a psychological resource that views existing conditions as manageable, comprehensible, and meaningful and has been highly associated with greater stress resistance and better psychological health. The results also showed that people with more positive emotions than negative ones experience a flourishing, joyful life; feel a sense of fulfillment; and effectively recover from stressful situations as well as lead better lives [62,63,91].In addition to SOC, resilience as a positive psychological resource [62,67,92] and the PERMA positive well-being model [31,78] have potential roles in reducing stress and depression [45]. According to [45], higher levels of resilience and optimism are strongly associated with higher levels of positive well-being or happiness and lower stress levels. Meanwhile, studies on the relationship between resilience and teachers’ positive well-being during the pandemic are crucial. According to [13], the COVID-19 pandemic has affected teachers’ work-life balance and well-being. Therefore, this study proposes building the resilience of higher-education teachers as a core strategy to reduce their stress or frustration due to COVID-19 and boost their positive well-being. Other scholars have observed a high interaction between stress and resilience and well-being, and that resilience and low stress were influential predictors of well-being [65].The third hypothesis tested whether COVID-19 stress negatively affects SOC, resilience, and TWB. This study found that COVID-19 stress is a negative predictor of SOC, resilience, and TWB, supporting Hypothesis 3. These findings are consistent with those of other scientific studies [25,27,45]. These results indicate that university teachers who exhibit high levels of SOC, resilience, and positive well-being experience lower COVID-19 stress.The fourth hypothesis examined whether SOC and resilience are positive and significant predictors of TWB. According to the results, SOC is a significant positive predictor of TWB, which is supported by the literature [53,56,57]. Antonovsky’s salutogenic theory also showed that generalized resistance and the use of personal resources help decrease stress and depression levels [35,57].In addition, this study found that resilience is a significant positive predictor of TWB. Consistent with our findings, several works also mentioned the protective role of resilience. For example, resilience leads to several benefits such as physical or psychological integration [24,45,47,48,49,52,53], lower levels of COVID-19 stress [47], having positive emotions rather than negative ones [50], psychological adjustment [45], and developing hope and meaning in one’s life [38]. Higher resilience is also associated with higher levels of positive happiness, lower levels of stress, resistance to disease, and recovery from adversity [45,51], and reduces the negative impacts of stress and enhances an individual’s well-being [65].The fifth hypothesis assessed COVID-19 stress as a predictor of TWB through SOC and resilience (see Figure 2). We found that SOC and resilience fully and significantly mediated the relation between COVID-19 stress and the TWB model, supporting Hypothesis 5. Other scientific findings were also consistent with those of this study [25,27,45,53,54,65]. Specifically, [45,56,57] found that resilience and SOC are the best personal resources that can safeguard ego strength and lower stress levels and depression.The partial mediation model also confirmed whether SOC mediates the relation between COVID-19 stress and TWB (see Figure 3). This implies that higher SOC leads to lower COVID-19 stress and better TWB. The existing literature supports our findings and indicates that SOC protects and mediates adverse life experiences and positive well-being [53]. In fact, [56] also found that SOC had a buffering effect on public psychological health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Antonovsky’s salutogenic theory also showed that generalized resistance and the use of personal resources help reduce stress and depression levels [57,90,92].Finally, this study determined whether resilience plays a mediating role in the relationship between COVID-19 stress and TWB. We found that COVID-19 stress had an indirect, negative, and significant effect on TWB through resilience (Figure 4). Consistent with our findings, and as stated previously, several studies have discussed the protective role of resilience [45,49,50,51,61,62,92]. 5. Conclusions

This study examined the direct impact of COVID-19 stress, SOC, and resilience on TWB as well as the mediation role of SOC and resilience between COVID-19 stress and TWB using the bootstrapping approach in SEM. We also determined the construct validity and reliability, as well as the measurement equivalence of the PSS-10-C, SOC-13, BRS, and PERMA Profiler Questionnaire, using CFA.

Even though the instruments were cross-culturally validated, construct validity using CFA, discriminant validity, convergent validity, composite reliability, and measurement invariance were performed and confirmed in this study.

As a result of the current findings, resilience and SOC had the highest scores, followed by TWB and COVID-19 stress. This is supported by the literature, which shows that higher SOC and resilience scores, as well as the PERMA positive psychology model, resulted in better stress coping and the maintenance of an individual’s well-being. The findings of this study confirmed that SOC and resilience positively predict TWB and act as mediators between COVID-19 stress and TWB. These findings suggest that SOC, resiliency, and the PERMA positive well-being theory could all help to lower COVID-19 stress levels.

Thus, positive psychology intervention and prevention approaches that use resilience and SOC as positive resources to help teachers flourish in life and develop high resilience and SOC to nurture their well-being should be designed. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that higher levels of resilience, SOC, positive well-being among teachers according to PERMA, and lower levels of COVID-19 stress constitute a novel integrated model, are critical to overcoming existing problems, and are the best predictors for other professions such as health. Well-being is broad, and each professional task is different; therefore, we suggest that research be conducted in different contexts using this model to address employee well-being issues. Hence, this model will be applicable to clinical and other organizations.

Overall, this study provides practitioners and researchers who wish to work in such fields with mediation models that are based on the most recent academic research as well as manageable, time-saving, and more accurate psychometric tools, thereby bolstering efforts to comprehend the COVID-19 pandemic’s effects and develop effective protective measures and interventions to increase TWB.