Sociodemographic attributes of informants in the study area

In this study, a total of 96 participants were involved. The majority of the participants were male, accounting for 83.3% (n = 80), while the remaining 16.7% (n = 16) were female. When considering the healing experience, the majority of the participants were classified as general informants, making up 66.7% (n = 64), followed by key informants at 33.3% (n = 32). The age range of the participants included in the study varied from 18 to 80 years old. Among them, the largest proportion fell within the age group of 56–80, comprising 53.1% (n = 51), followed by the age group of 31–55, accounting for 30.2% (n = 29). The education levels of the participants ranged from illiteracy to college level. The majority of the participants were found to be illiterate, representing 70.8% (n = 68), followed by those who had completed elementary school at 21.8% (n = 21). In terms of marital status, the majority of the participants were married at 82.2% (n = 79), followed by single individuals at 13.5% (n = 13) (Table 2).

Table 2 Sociodemographic characteristics of respondentsMedicinal plant knowledge among different ethnic groups

The information on the dissemination of medicinal knowledge among the most referenced ethnic groups in the Guraferda District provides insight into the diverse traditional healing practices deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of the Sheko, Amhara, Meinit, and Kefa communities. These ethnic groups, with percentages of 33.3%, 20.8%, 14.6%, and 11.5%, respectively, are recognized as preservers of valuable medicinal wisdom transmitted across generations. Their profound connection to local flora and fauna, as well as cultural customs, likely contributes to their higher reported percentages. Conversely, the Sidama and Wolyita ethnic groups, with percentages of 3.1%, seem to possess lower levels of documented medicinal knowledge, indicating a potential necessity for further investigation and documentation of their traditional healing methods. This contrast underscores the importance of acknowledging and safeguarding the diverse range of medicinal knowledge upheld by various ethnic groups within the Guraferda District to leverage the potential advantages for healthcare practices in the area. The distribution of medicinal knowledge among the most cited ethnic groups in the Guraferda District of Ethiopia reveals a complex interplay between cultural practices, environmental factors, and historical traditions. The significantly higher percentages reported by the Sheko, Amhara, Meinit, and Kefa ethnic groups highlight the deep-rooted connection these communities have with their natural surroundings and traditional healing practices. Their reliance on local flora and fauna for medicinal purposes underscores the intimate relationship between culture and nature, where indigenous knowledge is passed down through generations as a vital part of community identity.

The lower reported percentages of medicinal knowledge among the Sidama and Wolyita ethnic groups suggest a potential divergence in traditional healing practices within the Guraferda district. This could be attributed to a variety of factors, including historical influences, access to resources, and cultural assimilation. Further exploration into the specific medicinal practices of these ethnic groups could provide valuable insights into the diversity of healing traditions present in the region and help bridge gaps in healthcare access and understanding.

Medicinal plants naming related to culture in the study area

The nomenclature of medicinal plants often incorporates meanings that are related to their use or other suggestive information about the plants. This information was uncovered by examining the local names assigned to various medicinal plant species. Among these species, some of the local names directly indicate their medicinal properties, while others describe physical attributes such as growth form, trunk color, leaf shape, toxicity, taste, and smell. It is important to mention that all of the medicinal plant species studied have local names in one or more languages spoken in the districts being investigated. These names are occasionally used interchangeably or with slight variations in pronunciation among different communities. Additionally, there are cases where a single local name is used to refer to multiple species that possess similar medicinal properties.

For instance, the local name “Qey Shnkur” is used to refer to Allium cepa L. due to the red color of its bulb. Similarly, “Gutichaa” is used for Acmella caulirhiza Delile because its leaves resemble the shape of an earring. “Wotetie” is the local name for Lactuca serriola L., chosen because of its sap that resembles milk. “Yeayit jero” is used to describe Centella asiatica (L.) Urb, as its leaf structure resembles that of a rat's ear. “Michi-charo” is the local name for Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth., as it is known to locally cure febrile illness called “mich.” Lastly, “Shiferaw” is the local name for Moringa oleifera Lam., as it is believed to treat various diseases.

Traditional medicinal plants used to treat human ailmentsDiversity of medicinal plants in Guraferda district

The utilization of medicinal plants by the inhabitants of Guraferda District was investigated, resulting in the identification of a total of 81 species. These species belong to 38 families and 71 genera of plants (Table 12). The local population relies on these plants to address a wide range of human ailments, encompassing approximately 40 different ailments. This finding surpasses the numbers reported in Ethiopia by [21,22,23,24,25], which reported 60, 29, 63, 72, and 12 plant species, respectively. Similarly, compared to reports from other parts of the world by [26,27,28], which reported 42, 55, and 37 plant species, respectively, the number of medicinal plants found in Guraferda District is higher. The variation in the number of medicinal plants found in different study areas may be attributed to factors such as the area of vegetation type, the number of informants involved in the study, the time of data collection, and the duration and culture of the area, as suggested by [29]. The prevalence of herbal treatments for human ailments in Guraferda District indicates the reliance of the local population on traditional medicines. This reliance may be influenced by factors such as the high cost of modern medications, the limited availability and accessibility of modern health services, and the cultural acceptance of herbal medicines, as also observed in other regions of Ethiopia by [30,31,32].

Notably, the families Asteraceae and Solanaceae were the most frequently mentioned, with each accounting for 11.1% of the species cited (9 species each). Additionally, the families Euphorbiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Rutaceae were also mentioned, representing 6.2% and 5 species each, and 4.9% and 4 species, respectively (Table 3). This suggests that these plant families were widely utilized for the treatment of human ailments. This finding aligns with previous reports from Ethiopia [25, 33,34,35,36,37] as well as other countries worldwide [38, 39]. In contrast, the families Fabaceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Apocynaceae were frequently reported in Pakistan [40]. This could be attributed to the wider distribution and abundance of these plant families in the flora region, in terms of the number of taxa [29]. This indicates that easily accessible plant species are often preferred by individuals, as long as they are not harmful [41, 42].

Table 3 Total list of families with number of genera, species and rankGrowth form of medicinal plants

The findings of the study indicate that medicinal plants can be categorized into different groups based on their habits. Among these groups, herbs were found to be the most abundant, comprising 55.5% of the total number of species recorded (45 species). Following herbs, shrubs constituted 22.2% (18 species), while trees accounted for 16% (13 species) (Fig. 3). Climbers, on the other hand, represented the smallest proportion with only 6.2% (5 species). The abundance of herbal species may be due to favorable climate conditions, such as high rainfall. Herbs are preferred for treating ailments due to their availability and effectiveness, as noted by scholars [2, 33], both locally and globally [38, 40, 43]. This trend could be seen as positive for plant conservation, as herbs have shorter growth cycles and require less space for cultivation compared to trees. However, seasonal herbs may not be accessible at certain times, especially if sourced from the wild [8].

Fig. 3

Growth forms of medicinal plants for human Ailments

In contrast, a larger number of studies have reported the use of shrubs and trees [9, 13, 44,45,46], both locally and globally [47,48,49,50,51,52,53]. This could be due to their annual availability and their ability to withstand drought and invasive alien species, making them suitable for widespread use [13]. Furthermore, this suggests a variation in medicinal plant utilization due to differences in culture, agroecologies, topographic features, and the ease of access to the species [54].

Habitat of medicinal plants

The collection of medicinal plants in the study area involved sourcing from diverse outlets, namely the wild, home gardens, and the market. Out of the 81 medicinal plants identified, 38 (47%) were procured from the wild, 19 (23.4%) from home gardens (HG), 15 (18.5%) from the market, and 9 (11.1%) from both the wild and home gardens (Fig. 4). Human activities are shrinking these habitats due to population growth, jeopardizing many wild medicinal plants. This aligns with global reliance on wild habitats for medicinal plants. Efforts to cultivate and sustainably use these plants are needed to reverse the line. This information is supported by the work of [55,56,57,58], as well as research conducted by [53, 59, 60].

Fig. 4

Sources of medicinal plants for human ailments

Medicinal plant parts used for human ailments

The study's findings indicated that 12 specific parts of medicinal plants were identified as the primary constituents utilized for addressing various health problems. The analysis of plant parts, based on the total frequency of citations by informants, demonstrated that out of a total of 213 reports on plant parts, the most commonly employed components for the preparation of remedies were leaves (47%, 100), roots (20.1%, 43), seeds (11.1%, 25), bulbs (6.1%, 13), and fruits (5.2%, 11). Furthermore, stem and rhizome (2.3%, 5 each), the whole part (1.4%, 3), as well as flower, latex, bark, and tuber (0.9%, 2 each) were also mentioned by the informants (Fig. 5). This aligns with other studies showing leaves are frequently used in traditional medicine due to their availability, ease of use, and effectiveness due to high concentration of secondary metabolites. However, over-harvesting leaves during dry seasons can be challenging and harmful to plants' reproductive processes. This information is supported by the work of various researchers, such as [9, 11, 31], and elsewhere in the world [61,62,63].

Fig. 5

Most cited medicinal plant parts

Contrary to these findings, other studies have reported the prevalence of roots over other plant parts, as well as stems and whole plants, in traditional medicine. This information was supported by the work of various researchers, such as [2, 23, 44], and elsewhere in the world [45, 59, 65,66,67,68,69]. Year-round accessibility of fresh roots makes them a popular choice for medicine, but over-harvesting threatens medicinal plants like Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen and Echinops kebericho Mesfin in Guraferda District. Similarly, studies conducted in other parts of Ethiopia and the worlds have indicated that overutilization of root parts poses a threat to medicinal plants such as [2, 59].

Forms of medicinal plant used for human ailments

The analysis results for the condition of the plant used, based on the frequency of citations by informants, revealed that out of the total 226 reports on plant usage, the majority of medicinal plants were found to be prepared solely from fresh plant materials (65.4%, 148). Following this, a significant portion of medicinal plants were prepared from dry conditions (31.4%, 71). A small percentage of medicinal plants (3.2%, 7) were prepared exclusively from either fresh or dry plant material (Fig. 6). This finding aligns with previous research conducted by various scholars who also reported the use of freshly collected plant parts for traditional medicine preparation [2, 13, 41, 69]. Furthermore, similar practices have been observed in different parts of the world [47, 51, 62]. Traditional healers argue that the healing potential of certain medicinal plants diminishes if they are not used in their fresh condition. Consequently, there appears to be limited utilization of dry storage for future use, as highlighted by previous studies [2, 70, 71]. Due to the lack of efforts in conserving dried plant matter, the frequent gathering of fresh plant parts may pose a threat to the plants, particularly during dry seasons. The reliance of local communities on fresh plant parts can be attributed to the perceived effectiveness of these species in therapy, as the beneficial ingredients are not lost during the drying process. However, this dependency on fresh plant materials also poses a potential risk for the loss of these valuable medicinal plants [41, 72].

Fig. 6

Forms of medicinal plant used for human ailments

Mode of medicinal plants preparation

Different approaches were utilized to create the traditional remedy, taking into account the nature of the ailments, as well as the condition and components of the medicinal plant. Pounding was the preferred method for preparing dried plant parts, whereas crushing was employed for fresh ones. The research findings highlighted that informants reported a total of 211 modes of preparation frequency for medicinal plants. Notably, the majority of plants were prepared by crushing (66.4%, 140), followed by powdered (18%, 38), and concoction (15.6%, 33) (Fig. 7). Crushing aids quick bioactive extraction for immediate relief, often using single plant parts or mixtures from different plants. These findings align with similar results reported by [8, 76, 77] both locally and globally [78]. In contrast, other studies have found that powdering was the dominant method of traditional medicine preparation by local people, as observed in the works of [75, 79, 80] as well as in various cultural groups worldwide [37, 64].

Fig. 7

Mode of medicinal plants preparation for human ailments

Route of medicinal plant administration and application

The study found that informants mentioned route of administration 173 times. Oral administration was most common (54.3%, 94 citations), followed by dermal (34.1%, 59 citations) and nasal (8.1%, 14 citations) routes. Other routes like optical, auricular, vaginal, and anal each accounted for 1.2% (2 citations) and 0.6% (1 citation), respectively (Fig. 8). This trend is in agreement with findings from various studies in Ethiopia [23, 35,