Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder that causes persistently elevated blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. Type II DM also referred to as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), develops when β-cells lose their responsiveness to insulin. The factors contributing to its pathogenesis include a diet high in fat and calories, a sedentary lifestyle, and obesity (Tuomilehto et al., 2001). The frequency of DM is rising rapidly worldwide, a prevalent disease. According to a report by (Magliano & Boyko, 2021) over 537 million people were estimated to be suffering from this disease. If this trend continues, there will be 693 million diabetics worldwide by the year 2045 (Cho et al., 2018). People with DM are at high risk of developing macrovascular and microvascular complications, affecting the heart, blood vessels, kidney, cornea of eyes and nerves (Harding et al., 2019). These complications associated with DM are primarily due to the increased concentration of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), oxidative stress, and activation of different cellular signaling pathways (Bangar et al., 2022, Fan and Monnier, 2021, Taguchi and Fukami, 2023).

Methylglyoxal and other glycating agents such as glucose, fructose, galactose, and lactose interact non-enzymatically with free amino groups of proteins to form AGEs, or Maillard reaction products, which modify the protein’s structure and function (Singh et al., 2014). As albumin is the most abundant protein of the plasma, making up 50% of the plasma proteins, it becomes an ultimate target of the glycating agents. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) is a globular protein of 585 amino acid residues and a homolog of human serum albumin (HSA). BSA has a high (76%) sequence homology to HSA, and both have been the subject of extensive in vitro glycation research (Sadowska-Bartosz et al., 2015). The link between diabetes and trace elements has been found in numerous investigations (Khan and Awan, 2014, Sanjeevi et al., 2018), and their concentrations are reported to be lowered in patients with DM (Siddiqui et al., 2014). Several reports manifest the pivotal role of vitamins and minerals in insulin resistance, and their deficiency may lead to adverse effects and escalation of Type II diabetes progression (Dubey et al., 2020, Vinson and Howard, 1996). Due to the antioxidant potential and role in glucose metabolism, various vitamin and mineral supplements are admissible in managing DM to prevent secondary complications (Martini et al., 2010).

Molybdenum (Mo) has insulin-mimetic activity, and Molybdate partly mimics insulin-promoted metabolic effects in Drosophila melanogaster (Bohdana et al., 2014). Molybdate treatment for diabetic rats has enhanced lipid and glucose metabolism (Ozcelikay et al., 1996). Zeng et al. (2008) reported that tetrathiomolybdate partially improves hyperglycemia in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats and in the db/db mice model. Tetrathiomolybdate was also used for treating fibrotic, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases, including the non-obese diabetic mouse model (Brewer et al., 2006). Sodium molybdate protects the cell’s inherent antioxidant system by lowering lipid peroxidation in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Panneerselvam & Govindasamy, 2004). Diabetes and renal failure are more common among people with manganese (Mn) deficiencies, according to studies on the general population. Koh et al. (2014) studied the association of blood Mn levels in chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and renal dysfunction in the Korean general population.

Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, is a compelling fat-soluble vitamin with potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Li et al. investigated the impact of vitamin E supplementation in diabetic people on LDL oxidative susceptibility, glycation, and AGEs alterations in vitro (Li et al., 1996). Several studies demonstrated that vitamin E inhibits glycation of haemoglobin, which manifests as a diagnostic biomarker of diabetes, in STZ-induced diabetic rats (Je et al., 2001) by inhibiting malondialdehyde (MDA) formation and lipid peroxidation (Minamiyama et al., 2008). A meta-analysis study of randomized controlled trials reported that patients with Type II diabetes who use vitamin C supplements may experience better glycemic control and a decline in blood pressure (Mason et al., 2021). A previous study also reported that vitamin C at 10 mM concentration showed significant glycation inhibition and reduced oxidative stress by lowering advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) and AGEs formation in the glycated BSA model in vitro (Grzebyk & Piwowar, 2016). Research suggests that vitamin B6, an antioxidant, can help to prevent the formation of AGEs. Additionally, studies have demonstrated that it may lower the risk of diabetes as well as diabetic complications (Mascolo & Vernì, 2020). A thorough comparison and analysis of the antiglycation potential of these vitamins and minerals have yet to be conducted.

The generation of AGEs in diabetes is linked to increased oxidative stress and inflammation, which can lead to secondary complications associated with high blood sugar levels. Using vitamins and minerals as dietary supplements to combat or at least control the deleterious effects of protein glycation is an additive regimen for managing Type II DM. Based on the evidence presented, this study has focused on exploring the potential of trace elements, fat-soluble vitamins, and water-soluble vitamins as antiglycation agents.