Thompson AJ, Baranzini SE, Geurts J, Hemmer B, Ciccarelli O. Multiple sclerosis. The Lancet. 2018;391(10130):1622–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30481-1.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ascherio A, Munger K. Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis: from risk factors to prevention—an update. Semin Neurol. 2016;36(02):103–14. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1579693.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Howard J, Trevick S, Younger DS. Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis. Neurol Clin. 2016;34(4):919–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2016.06.016.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walton C, et al. Rising prevalence of multiple sclerosis worldwide: insights from the Atlas of MS, third edition. Mult Scler J. 2020;26(14):1816–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458520970841.

Article  Google Scholar 

Winquist RJ, Kwong A, Ramachandran R, Jain J. The complex etiology of multiple sclerosis. Biochem Pharmacol. 2007;74(9):1321–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2007.04.026.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sintzel MB, Rametta M, Reder AT. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis: a comprehensive review. Neurol Ther. 2018;7(1):59–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40120-017-0086-4.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Soldan SS, Lieberman PM. Epstein–Barr virus and multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21(1):51–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-022-00770-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cappelletti C, et al. Quantitative proteomics reveals protein dysregulation during T cell activation in multiple sclerosis patients compared to healthy controls. Clin Proteomics. 2022;19(1):23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12014-022-09361-1.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chitnis T. The role of CD4 T cells in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007;79:43–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7742(07)79003-7.

Mey GM, Mahajan KR, DeSilva TM. ‘Neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis. WIREs Mech Dis. 2023;15:1. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsbm.1583.

Article  Google Scholar 

Racke M. Immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Ann Indian Acad Neurol. 2009;12(4):215. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.58274.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dhanapalaratnam R, Markoulli M, Krishnan AV. Disorders of vision in multiple sclerosis. Clin Exp Optom. 2022;105(1):3–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164622.2021.1947745.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ghosh R, Roy D, Dubey S, Das S, Benito-León J. Movement disorders in multiple sclerosis: an update. Tremor Other Hyperkinetic Movements. 2022;12(1):14. https://doi.org/10.5334/tohm.671.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lisak M, Špiljak B, Pašić H, Trkanjec Z. Cognitive aspects in multiple sclerosis. Psychiatr Danub. 2021;33(Suppl 13):177–82.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Potulska-Chromik A, et al. Original article clinical and neuroimaging correlation of movement disorders in multiple sclerosis: case series and review of the literature. Folia Neuropathol. 2014;1:92–100. https://doi.org/10.5114/fn.2014.41747.

Article  Google Scholar 

Dardalhon V, Korn T, Kuchroo VK, Anderson AC. Role of Th1 and Th17 cells in organ-specific autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2008;31(3):252–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2008.04.017.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Høglund RA. Multiple sclerosis and the role of immune cells. World J Exp Med. 2014;4(3):27. https://doi.org/10.5493/wjem.v4.i3.27.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fletcher JM, Lalor SJ, Sweeney CM, Tubridy N, Mills KHG. T cells in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Clin Exp Immunol. 2010;162(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2010.04143.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yuan X, et al. Functional and metabolic alterations of gut microbiota in children with new-onset type 1 diabetes. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):6356. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33656-4.

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Xin X, Wang Q, Qing J, et al. Th17 cells in primary Sjögren's syndrome negatively correlate with increased Roseburia and Coprococcus. Front Immunol. 2022;13:974648. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.974648.

Freedman SN, Shahi SK, Mangalam AK. The “gut feeling”: breaking down the role of gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics. 2018;15(1):109–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-017-0588-x.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thursby E, Juge N. Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochem J. 2017;474(11):1823–36. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20160510.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yatsunenko T, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012;486(7402):222–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11053.

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Senn V, Bassler D, Choudhury R, et al. Microbial colonization from the fetus to early childhood-a comprehensive review [published correction appears in Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2021 Jun 30;11:715671]. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:573735. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.573735.

Adak A, Khan MR. An insight into gut microbiota and its functionalities. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019;76(3):473–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-018-2943-4.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Belkaid Y, Hand TW. Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation. Cell. 2014;157(1):121–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.011.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mörbe UM, et al. Human gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT); diversity, structure, and function. Mucosal Immunol. 2021;14(4):793–802. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41385-021-00389-4.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kasarello K, Cudnoch-Jedrzejewska A, Czarzasta K. Communication of gut microbiota and brain via immune and neuroendocrine signaling. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1118529. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1118529.

Kim M, Kim CH. Regulation of humoral immunity by gut microbial products. Gut Microbes. 2017;8(4):392–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2017.1299311.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Linares DM, Ross P, Stanton C. Beneficial microbes: the pharmacy in the gut. Bioengineered. 2016;7(1):11–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2015.1126015.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Macpherson AJ, Uhr T. (2004) ‘Induction of protective iga by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria.’ Science. 1979;303(5664):1662–5. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1091334.

Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sutherland DB, Fagarasan S. IgA synthesis: a form of functional immune adaptation extending beyond gut. Curr Opin Immunol. 2012;24(3):261–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2012.03.005.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rinninella E, et al. ‘What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? A changing ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases.’ Microorganisms. 2019;7(1):14. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7010014.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cignarella F, et al. Intermittent fasting confers protection in CNS autoimmunity by altering the gut microbiota. Cell Metab. 2018;27(6):1222-1235.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.05.006.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

DeGruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E. Current understanding of dysbiosis in disease in human and animal models. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2016;22(5):1137–50. https://doi.org/10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wexler HM. Bacteroides : the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20(4):593–621. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00008-07.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang Y-J, Li S, Gan R-Y, Zhou T, Xu D-P, Li H-B. Impacts of gut bacteria on human health and diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16(12):7493–519. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16047493.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Carding S, Verbeke K, Vipond DT, Corfe BM, Owen LJ. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota in disease. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 2015;26:0. https://doi.org/10.3402/mehd.v26.26191.

Article  Google Scholar 

Vacaras V, et al. The ro