The purpose and significance of Hani people’s performance rituals

In many parts of the world, ritual plants are commonly found. Ritual plants can be used for ritual healing [14], 15, 29] as hallucinogens [30], as incense or decorations for communication with deities [16], or to represent sacred entities such as trees [30]. Hosting rituals often serve multiple objectives, but addressing psychological issues is paramount. Rituals can provide culturally diverse solutions to complex practical problems, achieving multiple desired outcomes. Rituals thrive when they encompass diverse goals [8]. The main themes in the Hani people’s ritual activities is seeking blessings and protection for people, crops, and livestock. The 11 rituals of this study revolve around the above mentioned three themes, with the overall intention of averting disasters and seeking the blessings of deities and ancestors for the prosperity and well-being of the Hani people, abundant and fruitful harvests, and thriving livestock.

The Hani people, whose primary livelihood is rice terrace farming, closely link their ritual performances to their production and daily life. The enduring interest of the Hani people in hosting rituals stems from two main factors. Firstly, agricultural activities serve as a substantial driving force behind rituals. In the harsh ecological environment, peoples’ well-being, crops’ growth, and livestock’s prosperity at various stages all require the blessings of deities. For instance, rituals such as the Angmatu (Ritual of worshiping the village god), the Kuzhazha Festival (Farming sacrificial ritual), and the Huoxiza (Xinmijie Festival) are always synchronized with the rhythm of agricultural production. Secondly, rituals are conducted to communicate and interact with nature. When animals in the natural world pose threats to humans, such as snake bites, or encroach upon human living spaces, such as bees building nests under the eaves, or when natural forces disrupt human habitats, such as dreaming of houses collapsing, the Hani people hold rituals to ward off disasters and evil spirits. The aim is to restore order to the disturbed natural order, achieve reconciliation with nature, and realize harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.

The significance of plants in Hani people’s rituals

Chinese scholar Zou Hui has documented several ritual plants among the Hani people; however, most have yet to be identified at the species level, and scientific names for these plants are lacking. In Zou Hui’s list of frequently named plants in Hani villages, two of the plants correspond to those recorded in our study (Alnus nepalensis D. Don and Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.) [31]. The Naxi people also hang Artemisia caruifolia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb on their doors [10], which resembles the usage recorded in our study.

According to our research findings, Rhus chinensis Mill, Oryza sativa L., Phyllostachys sulphurea (Carr.) A. et C. Riv., and Musa basjoo Siebold & Zucc. ex Iinuma are frequently mentioned plants. The twigs of Rhus chinensis were used in ceremonies of Lawa communities [32]. However, based on our findings, Rhus chinensis Mill is utilized in four different rituals, including the ritual of calling sb’s soul, the ritual of worshiping the village god, the ritual of asking for peace, and the purification ritual, with the overall intention of warding off evil and dispelling disasters. Musa basjoo Siebold & Zucc. ex Iinuma, Oryza sativa L., and Phyllostachys sulphurea (Carr.) A. et C. Riv. are used in three different rituals. The selection of Oryza sativa L. in rituals is not arbitrary; it must be harvested by the ritual participants from their terraced fields to be used in the rituals. These ritual plants are a constant reminder to the Hani people not to forget their ancestors and history, to respect nature, and to use resources appropriately. For the Hani people, whose primary livelihood relies on rice terrace farming, plants play a significant role in their connection with the natural environment, communication with ancestors, warding off disasters, and praying for peace and happiness.

Cultural symbolism of ritual plants

Symbolism is a concept wherein something represents another through association, similarity, or custom [33]. Initially, imperceptible entities become perceptible through symbolic forms and can be purposefully utilized by society by manipulating religious specialists [34]. In traditional beliefs, ritual plants serve as spiritual mediators connecting humans with intangible forces [35].

Our research findings indicate that the plants selected for traditional rituals among the Hani people share specific common biological attributes when classified according to their habit as trees, shrubs, vines, and herbs, combined with their uses. Based on existing studies, the most common function of sacred trees is to serve as spiritual abodes [36], while white flowers symbolize purity [37]. Just like the two sacred trees (Schima argentea Pritz. ex Diels and Docynia delavayi (Franch.) C. K. Schneid.) offered in the Kuzhazha Festival, they are tall, sturdy, evergreen, with dense foliage, white flowers, abundant fruits, and long lifespans. The Moqiu pillar in the Kuzhazha Festival serves as a medium connecting the earth, celestial beings, and humans, representing the axis of the universe [38]. Therefore, a straight and sturdy tree species is chosen for this purpose. The tall and sturdy trees used for constructing swings and the Moqiu are characterized by their complex and durable materials, tall and upright stature, evergreen nature, and resistance to drought and poor soil conditions. Vines are used to tie the swings and reinforce the Moqiu due to their cold and drought resistance, evergreen nature, and excellent flexibility. Four herbaceous plants, known for their strong adaptability to the environment and vigorous vitality, exhibiting excellent toughness and resilience, are used to decorate the Moqiu house. The natural attributes of these plants, such as their straight and sturdy nature, good flexibility, and strong tolerance, symbolize the social attributes of integrity, responsibility, strength, and solidity among the Hani people. Based on a thorough understanding, identification, and grasp of the plants’ biological attributes, the Hani people apply them in ritual practices, endowing them with symbolic meanings and cultural significance. These plants, just like the Hani people, embody the ever-growing vitality and exuberance of life in the cosmic world.

Psychic effect of ritual plants

Most plants in the natural world have a psychic effect, allowing individuals who utilize them to communicate with their ancestors [39]. In the Hani people, bamboo is considered an auspicious plant, representing the external manifestation of human vitality and serving as a spiritual entity for communication between humans and deities [31]. Our research findings indicate that bamboo holds significant psychic effect within Hani Communities. For example, the Phyllostachys sulphurea (Carr.) A. et C. Riv. used in the purification ritual known as “Dekayaza” is considered the soul plant and core symbol of the Hani cosmology. It symbolizes the Hani ancestors and represents a response to the past. Cultural practitioner MYJ “Beima” stated:

“Only with the existence of all things in the world can humans survive. As the old saying goes, the largest creature in the water is the fish and the largest on land is bamboo. Bamboo is the embodiment of our Hani ancestors.”

Each symbolically significant object is associated with some experiential element from real-life encounters. Firstly, from the Hani perspective, bamboo makes ancestral spirits because of its vigorous reproductive power and resilient vitality, aligning with the Hani’s desire for prosperity and flourishing descendants. Bamboo is also long-lasting and easily preserved, meeting the ancestral spirits’ need for permanence. Secondly, places with bamboo are typically associated with abundant water sources, clean water, and a symbol of a well-preserved ecological environment.

The small bamboo raft made from Chimonobambusa pachystachys Hsuch et W. P. Zhang, known as “boqgeel” in the Hani language, refers to the Hani sacrificial platform and shrine. Whether the “boqgeel” made during the Kuzhazha Festival or funerals, they are used to house and honor ancestral spirits. This practice is because the Hani people encountered rivers during their migration, and the swift currents made it difficult to cross. Suddenly, they discovered a Chimonobambusa pachystachys Hsuch et W. P. Zhang forest (ci zhu) by the river, and they wove the “ci zhu” into rafts, which helped the Hani ancestors successfully cross the river and be saved. In gratitude for the life-saving assistance of the “ci zhu”, the Hani people plant it wherever they go, expressing their gratitude to it at all times. During funerals, the Hani people erect Bambusa emeiensis L. C. Chia & H. L. Fung on the left side of the main gate of the deceased’s home. Beima crafts it into bamboo tubes used for reciting scriptures and as decorations on the roof of the Moqiu house during the Kuzhazha Festival. These practices are specific manifestations of the psychic effect of ritual plants.

Conveying the vision and symbolism of population reproduction through ritual plants

The Hani people often use plants in rituals to convey the auspicious symbolism of strong reproductive power, fertility, robustness, and well-being [31]. For instance, during the village festival called the Kuzhazha Festival, every household collects three clusters of Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus, each cluster consists of nine plants, totaling 27, then hung on the houses. This particular grass is favored by important working animals such as oxen and horses in agricultural production. It possesses vigorous vitality and a fast growth cycle, and when consumed by oxen and horses, it fills them with strength, injecting energy and vitality into agricultural production.

In the region under our study, the Hani people, apart from selecting plants for rituals, also convey the vision and symbolism of population reproduction through the cultivation of selected plants. These chosen plants are all edible fruit trees belonging to the Rosaceae family. They can be found throughout the traditional Hani community’s production and living spaces. For instance, during the ritual of erecting the stone tablets of merit, plants are planted to ward off illnesses, seek blessings and accumulate merits, and wish for a prosperous future with many descendants. In the terraced rice fields and pathways of the Hani agricultural area, one can frequently encounter stone platforms where farming laborers rest. These stone platforms are typically accompanied by a big or small tree planted by the villagers. The trees include Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge, Docynia delavayi (Franch.) C. K. Schneid., Malus pumila Mill, Prunus persica L., Pyrus betulifolia Bunge and Pyrus xerophila Yü. These trees provide shade and serve as public resting places for the village community. The construction of these stone steps, which offer a space for communal relaxation, is often initiated by villagers with specific desires. These desires often come from women facing difficulties in conceiving, who build the stone steps and plant fruit-bearing trees in the hope of fertility and to provide refreshment and sustenance to passersby, accumulating merits and blessings while seeking fertility. Another group of individuals with specific desires includes households with sick or weak family members. They construct public resting stone platforms and plant shade trees to pray for the early recovery and well-being of their loved ones. In this process, plants are crucial mediators, establishing a transcendent connection with nature. Therefore, the commonly seen fruit trees in the Hani people’s production and living spaces are not merely plants that provide fruits; they carry and embody the essence of Hani culture. These trees gather their hopes, visions, blessings, and the vital spiritual symbols of vitality.

The utilization of plants represents a significant traditional ecological knowledge among the Hani people

Based on our research findings, the Hani people have persistent dynamic performance rituals, and the fundamental reason behind this is to maintain harmonious coexistence with nature. Plants from the natural world serve as a medium through which the Hani people effectively communicate with nature, and using plants in rituals represents an essential traditional ecological knowledge among the Hani people. Berkes argues that traditional knowledge systems tend to have a large moral and ethical context; there is no separation between nature and culture [40]. Plants and animals are not recognized solely for their utility; they are considered useful or beneficial because they are first understood [41]. Traditional ecological knowledge reflects local people’s attitudes and ways of life, often embedded in rituals and daily cultural practices [42]. The selection and utilization of plants in Hani ritual practices vividly express the cognitive processes and behavioral choices inherent in their understanding and nurturing of relationships with the world. The Hani people engage in “learning from things” and gain inspiration and shared knowledge from the natural world [43]. They develop an affinity and empathy with animate and inanimate objects, perceiving emotions, recording experiences, and passing them down through generations [43]. The interaction between humans and their environment involves empathetic dialogue and reciprocal reflection with the “non-human” realm. Effective interaction with the natural world requires actively perceiving, understanding, accepting, and contemplating the diversity we encounter. Traditional ecological knowledge is a continuation of culture, wisdom, and adaptation to specific environments. It is formed through observations, practices, and accumulated experiences of the environment, tested over time, and adapted to the requirements of specific locations. Traditional ecological wisdom not only persists in everyday life but also has the potential for activation, enriching the concept of ecological civilization [8]. The survival of traditional ecological wisdom in folk culture can better promote the process of ecological civilization construction by activating the ecological wisdom embedded in tradition.

The world’s significant cultural and ritual practices recognize the critical importance of protecting biodiversity and the natural environment for humanity [44,45,46,47]. Cultural diversity and biological diversity are inseparable entities [48]. Culture determines individual or collective utilization and management of natural resources, shapes the environment, and influences Earth’s ecosystems and biodiversity [49]. In many regions of Africa, spiritual beliefs can powerfully serve resource and environmental conservation [50,51,52]. The respect indigenous peoples have for religious or sacred ecological values plays a role in biodiversity conservation to some extent [53]. Indigenous communities are direct participants in utilizing and preserving local vegetation, and their accumulated traditional cultural and ecological knowledge over generations holds significant importance for biodiversity conservation [54]. Similarly, the cultural traditions, ecological beliefs, sacred groves associated with Hani culture, and reverence and protection of sacred trees enhance biodiversity conservation and the environment. Ritual practices like those of the Hani people are vivid examples of respecting and protecting natural resources and ecological systems.

People of our global village differ not only in their daily occupations and material wealth, but also in the ways in which they view the world around them. This multitude of perceptions is directly related to cultural diversity around the world, a diversity that is rapidly shrinking [40]. Just as in the study area, ritual experts who possess botanical knowledge face the challenge of a lack of successors. Cultural diversity and traditional ecological knowledge are gradually diminishing, and some villages have even disappeared. How to protect and inherit traditional ecological knowledge is a question that requires our thoughtful consideration.