Mohan S, Gu S, Parikh A, Radhakrishnan J. Prevalence of hyponatremia and association with mortality: results from NHANES. Am J Med. 2013;126:1127-1137.e1.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang X, Li X-Y. Prevalence of hyponatremia among older inpatients in a general hospital. Eur Geriatr Med. 2020;11:685–92.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Upadhyay A, Jaber BL, Madias NE. Incidence and prevalence of hyponatremia. Am J Med. 2006;119:S30–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

•• Verbalis JG, Goldsmith SR, Greenberg A, Korzelius C, Schrier RW, Sterns RH, Thompson CJ. Diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of hyponatremia: expert panel recommendations. Am J Med. 2013;126:S1-42. Most recent American guidelines on treating hyponatremia.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

•• Spasovski G, Vanholder R, Allolio B, et al. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;170:G1-47. Most recent European guidelines on treating hyponatremia.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Buffington MA, Abreo K. Hyponatremia: a review. J Intensive Care Med. 2016;31:223–36.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sterns RH, Riggs JE, Schochet SS. Osmotic demyelination syndrome following correction of hyponatremia. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:1535–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lambeck J, Hieber M, DreBing A, Niesen WD. Central pontine myelinosis and osmotic demyelination syndrome. Dtsch Arxtebl Int. 2019;116:600–6.

Google Scholar 

Sterns RH, Nigwekar SU, Hix JK. The treatment of hyponatremia. Semin Nephrol. 2009;29:282–99.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ayus JC, Caputo D, Bazerque F, Heguilen R, Gonzalez CD, Moritz ML. Treatment of hyponatremic encephalopathy with a 3% sodium chloride protocol: a case series. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015;65:435–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garrahy A, Dineen R, Hannon AM, Cuesta M, Tormey W, Sherlock M, Thompson CJ. Continuous versus bolus infusion of hypertonic saline in the treatment of symptomatic hyponatremia caused by SIAD. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019;104:3595–602.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baek SH, Jo YH, Ahn S, Medina-Liabres K, Oh YK, Lee JB, Kim S. Risk of overcorrection in rapid intermittent bolus vs slow continuous infusion therapies of hypertonic saline for patients with symptomatic hyponatremia: The SALSA randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181:81–92.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sigal SH, Amin A, Chiodo JA, Sanyal A. Management strategies and outcomes for hyponatremia in cirrhosis in the hyponatremia registry. Can J Gatroenterol Hepatol. 2018;2018:1579508.

Google Scholar 

Hoorn EJ, Spasovski G. Recent developments in the management of acute and chronic hyponatremia. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2019;28:424–32.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

•• Cook AM, Morgan Jones G, Hawryluk GWJ, et al. Guidelines for the acute treatment of cerebral edema in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care. 2020;32:647–66. Most recent Neurocritical Care Society Guidelines based on an in depth literature review.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rangel-Castillo L, Gopinath S, Robertson CS. Management of intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin. 2008;26:521–41.

Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Carter C, Human T. Efficacy, safety, and timing of 5% sodium chloride compared with 23.4% sodium chloride for osmotic therapy. Ann Pharmacother. 2017;51:625–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Busey K, Ferreira J, Aldridge P, Crandall M, Johnson D (2020) Comparison of weight-based dosing versus fixed dosing of 23.4% hypertonic saline for intracranial pressure reduction in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Emerg Trauma Shock 13:252

Maguigan KL, Dennis BM, Hamblin SE, Guillamondegui OD. Method of hypertonic saline administration: effects on osmolality in traumatic brain injury patients. J Clin Neurosci. 2017;39:147–50.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vialet R, Albanèse J, Thomachot L, Antonini F, Bourgouin A, Alliez B, Martin C. Isovolume hypertonic solutes (sodium chloride or mannitol) in the treatment of refractory posttraumatic intracranial hypertension: 2 mL/kg 7.5% saline is more effective than 2 mL/kg 20% mannitol. Crit Care Med. 2003 Jun;31(6):1683–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.CCM.0000063268.91710.DF. PMID:12794404.

Kerwin AJ, Schinco MA, Tepas JJ 3rd, Renfro WH, Vitarbo EA, Muehlberger M. The use of 23.4% hypertonic saline for the management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. J Trauma. 2009 Aug;67(2):277–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e3181acc726.  PMID:19667879.

• Mekonnen M, Ong V, Florence TJ, Mozaffari K, Mahgerefteh N, Rana S, Duong C, Plurad DS, Yang I (2022) Hypertonic saline treatment in traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. World Neurosurgery 162:98–110. Most recent meta-analysis on HTS in TBI. This study confirms significant ICP reduction and suggests using lower concentrations for sustained reduction.

Pasarikovski CR, Alotaibi NM, Al-Mufti F, Macdonald RL. Hypertonic saline for increased intracranial pressure after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review. World Neurosurgery. 2017;105:1–6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hauer E-M, Stark D, Staykov D, Steigleder T, Schwab S, Bardutzky J. Early continuous hypertonic saline infusion in patients with severe cerebrovascular disease. Crit Care Med. 2011;39:1766–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wagner I, Hauer E-M, Staykov D, Volbers B, Dörfler A, Schwab S, Bardutzky J. Effects of continuous hypertonic saline infusion on perihemorrhagic edema evolution. Stroke. 2011;42:1540–5.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen H, Song Z, Dennis JA. Hypertonic saline versus other intracranial pressure-lowering agents for people with acute traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010904.pub3.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rockswold GL, Solid CA, Paredes-Andrade E, Rockswold SB, Jancik JT, Quickel RR. Hypertonic saline and its effect on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and brain tissue oxygen. Neurosurgery. 2009;65:1035–42.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

F Munar AM Ferrer de NADAL M, Poca MA, Pedraza S, Sahuquillo J, Garnacho A, 2000 Cerebral hemodynamic effects of 7.2% hypertonic saline in patients with head injury and raised intracranial pressure J Neurotrauma 17:41–51

Boone M, Oren-Grinberg A, Robinson T, Chen C, Kasper E. Mannitol or hypertonic saline in the setting of traumatic brain injury: what have we learned? Surg Neurol Int. 2015;6:177.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mangat HS, Chiu Y-L, Gerber LM, Alimi M, Ghajar J, Härtl R. Hypertonic saline reduces cumulative and daily intracranial pressure burdens after severe traumatic brain injury. JNS. 2015;122:202–10.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kochanek PM, Adelson PD, Rosario BL, et al. Comparison of intracranial pressure measurements before and after hypertonic saline or mannitol treatment in children with severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5: e220891.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Berger-Pelleiter E, Émond M, Lauzier F, Shields J-F, Turgeon AF. Hypertonic saline in severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CJEM. 2016;18:112–20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shi J, Tan L, Ye J, Hu L. Hypertonic saline and mannitol in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic and meta-analysis. Medicine. 2020;99: e21655.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Strandvik GF. Hypertonic saline in critical care: a review of the literature and guidelines for use in hypotensive states and raised intracranial pressure. Anaesthesia. 2009;64:990–1003.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mirtallo J, Canada T, Johnson D, Kumpf V, Petersen C, Sacks G, Seres D, Guenter P. Safe practices for parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2004;28:S39–70.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Parienti J-J, Mongardon N, Mégarbane B, et al. Intravascular complications of central venous catheterization by insertion site. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1220–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Song Z, Chen S, Zhang Y, Shi X, Zhao N, Liao Z. Lidocaine coinfusion alleviates vascular pain induced by hypertonic saline infusion: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Anesthesiol. 2021;21:109.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brenkert TE, Estrada CM, McMorrow SP, Abramo TJ. Intravenous hypertonic saline use in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2013;29:71–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dillon RC, Merchan C, Altshuler D, Papadopoulos J. Incidence of adverse events during peripheral administration of sodium chloride 3%. J Intensive Care Med. 2018;33:48–53.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Faiver L, Hensler D, Rush SC, Kashlan O, Williamson CA, Rajajee V. Safety and efficacy of 23.4% sodium chloride administered via peripheral venous access for the treatment of cerebral herniation and intracranial pressure elevation. Neurocrit Care. 2021;35:845–52.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jannotta GE, Gulek BG, Dempsey JS, Blissitt PA, Sullivan HC, Tran K, Joffe A, Lele AV. Administration of 3% sodium chloride through peripheral intravenous access: development and implementation of a protocol for clinical practice. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing. 2021;18:147–53.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jones GM, Bode L, Riha H, Erdman MJ. Safety of continuous peripheral infusion of 3% sodium chloride solution in neurocritical care patients. Am J Crit Care. 2017;26:37–42.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mesghali E, Fitter S, Bahjri K, Moussavi K. Safety of peripheral line administration of 3% hypertonic saline and mannitol in the emergency department. J Emerg Med. 2019;56:431–6.