Fleischmann C, Scherag A, Adhikari NK, Hartog CS, Tsaganos T, Schlattmann P, et al. Assessment of global incidence and mortality of hospital-treated sepsis. Current estimates and limitations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;193:259–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schlapbach LJ, Kissoon N, Alhawsawi A, Aljuaid MH, Daniels R, Gorordo-Delsol LA, et al. World Sepsis Day: a global agenda to target a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2020;319:518–22.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, Shackelford KA, Tsoi D, Kievlan DR, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990–2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet. 2020;395:200–11.

Santella B, Folliero V, Pirofalo GM, Serretiello E, Zannella C, Moccia G, Santoro E, Sanna G, Motta O, De Caro F, Pagliano P. Sepsis—a retrospective cohort study of bloodstream infections. Antibiotics. 2020;9(12):851.

Zlatian O, Balasoiu AT, Balasoiu M, Cristea O, Docea AO, Mitrut R, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in bacterial pathogens among hospitalized patients with severe invasive infections. Exp Ther Med. 2018;16:4499–510.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhen X, Lundborg CS, Sun X, Hu X, Dong H. Economic burden of antibiotic resistance in ESKAPE organisms: a systematic review. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019;8:137.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Akin A, Alp E, Altindiş MU, Azak E, Batirel A, Çağ Y et al. Current diagnosis and treatment approach to sepsis. Mediterr J Infect Microbes Antimicrob. 2018;7:1–19.

Feng M, Sun T, Zhao Y, Zhang H. Detection of serum interleukin-6/10/18 levels in sepsis and its clinical significance. J Clin Lab Anal. 2016;6:1037–43.

Article  Google Scholar 

Gyawali B, Ramakrishna K, Dhamoon AS. Sepsis: the evolution in definition, pathophysiology, and management. SAGE Open Med. 2019;2050312119835043. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312119835043.

Mira JC, Cuschieri J, Ozrazgat-Baslanti T, Wang Z, Ghita GL, Loftus TJ, et al. The epidemiology of chronic critical illness after severe traumatic injury at two level one trauma centers. Crit Care Med. 2017;45:1989–96.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

McMullan BJ, Mostaghim M. Prescribing azithromycin Aust Prescr. 2015;38:87–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

FDA. Rocephin (Ceftriaxone injection). Genentech, USA. 2018. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/050585s068lbl.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2021.

Atkin SD, Abid S, Foster M, Bose M, Keller A, Hollaway R, et al. Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa from sputum of patients with cystic fibrosis demonstrates a high rate of susceptibility to ceftazidime–avibactam. Infect Drug Resist. 2018;11:1499–510.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bonomo RA, Donskey CJ, Blumer JL, Hujer AM, Hoyenm CK, Jacobs MR, et al. Cefotaxime-resistant bacteria colonizing older people admitted to an acute care hospital. J Am Geriat Soc. 2003;51:519–22.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Afriyie DK, Adu LB, Dzradosi M, Amponsah SK, Ohene-Manu P, Manu-Ofei F. Comparative in vitro activity of ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin against isolated uropathogens in Ghana: a pilot study. Pan Afr Med J. 2018;30. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2018.30.194.15457

Stein M, Komerska J, Prizade M, Sheinberg B, Tasher D, Somekh E. Clindamycin resistance among Staphylococcus aureus strains in Israel: implications for empirical treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;46:18–21.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

CDC. Carbapenem resistant Enterobacterals. 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/hai/organisms/cre/index.html. Accessed 17 Nov 2021.

Jang WH, Yoo DH, Park SW. Prevalence of and risk factors for levofloxacin-resistant E. coli isolated from outpatients with urinary tract infection. Korean J Urol. 2011;52:554–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Levitus M, Rewane A, Perera TB. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. [Updated 2022 May 15]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513233/

Banin E, Hughes D, Kuipers OP. Bacterial pathogens, antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. FEMS microbial Rev. 2017;41:450–2.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Esposito S, De Simone G, Boccia G, De Caro F, Pagliano P. Sepsis and septic shock: new definitions, new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2017;10:204–12.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Minasyan H. Sepsis: mechanisms of bacterial injury to the patient. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2019;27:1–22.

Article  Google Scholar 

Subramaniam S, Joyce P, Thomas N, Prestidge CA. Bioinspired drug delivery strategies for repurposing conventional antibiotics against intracellular infections. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2021;177:113948.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yin W, Wang Y, Liu L, He J. Biofilms: the microbial “protective clothing” in extreme environments. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:3423.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vestby LK, Grønseth T, Simm R, Nesse LL. Bacterial biofilm and its role in the pathogenesis of disease. Antibiotics. 2020;9:59.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kvich L, Burmølle M, Bjarnsholt T, Lichtenberg M. Do mixed-species biofilms dominate in chronic infections?–need for in situ visualization of bacterial organization. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:396.

Thakur A, Mikkelsen H, Jungersen G. Intracellular pathogens: host immunity and microbial persistence strategies. J Immunol Res. 2019;2019:1356540. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1356540

Wright KJ, Seed PC, Hultgren SJ. Development of intracellular bacterial communities of uropathogenic Escherichia coli depends on type 1 pili. Cell Microbiol. 2007;9:2230–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Edwards AM, Potts JR, Josefsson E, Massey RC. Staphylococcus aureus host cell invasion and virulence in sepsis is facilitated by the multiple repeats within FnBPA. PLoS pathog. 2010;6:e1000964.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Horsley H, Malone-Lee J, Holland D, Tuz M, Hibbert A, Kelsey M, Kupelian A, Rohn JL. Enterococcus faecalis subverts and invades the host urothelium in patients with chronic urinary tract infection. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e83637.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bergmann R, Gulotta G, Andreoni F, Sumitomo T, Kawabata S, Zinkernagel AS, Chhatwal GS, Nizet V, Rohde M, Uchiyama S. The group A Streptococcus interleukin-8 protease SpyCEP promotes bacterial intracellular survival by evasion of autophagy. Infect Microbe Dis. 2022;4(3):116–23.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Peterson E, Kaur P. Antibiotic resistance mechanisms in bacteria: relationships between resistance determinants of antibiotic producers, environmental bacteria, and clinical pathogens. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:2928.

Abdul-Jabar HH, Abd AH, Abdulamir AS. Efficacy of combinations of piperacilline/tazobactam, ceftazidime, amikacin and bacteriophage against Enterobacteriaceae sepsis in neonates: in vitro study. SRP. 2020;11:165–70.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Brunkhorst FM, Oppert M, Marx G, Bloos F, Ludewig K, Putensen C, et al. Effect of empirical treatment with moxifloxacin and meropenem vs meropenem on sepsis-related organ dysfunction in patients with severe sepsis: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;307:2390–9.

Martínez ML, Plata-Menchaca EP, Ruiz-Rodríguez JC, Ferrer R. An approach to antibiotic treatment in patients with sepsis. J Thorac Dis. 2020;12:1007–21.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Thomson KM, Dyer C, Liu F, Sands K, Portal E, Carvalho MJ, et al. Effects of antibiotic resistance, drug target attainment, bacterial pathogenicity and virulence, and antibiotic access and affordability on outcomes in neonatal sepsis: an international microbiology and drug evaluation prospective substudy. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21:1677–88.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Waltner-Toews RI, Paterson DL, Qureshi ZA, Sidjabat HE, Adams-Haduch JM, Shutt KA, et al. Clinical characteristics of bloodstream infections due to ampicillin-sulbactam-resistant, non-extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and the role of TEM-1 hyperproduction. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:495–501.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Martínez-Casanova J, Gómez-Zorrilla S, Prim N, Dal Molin A, Echeverría-Esnal D, Gracia-Arnillas MP, et al. Risk factors for amoxicillin-clavulanate resistance in community-onset urinary tract infections caused by Escherichia coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae: the role of prior exposure to fluoroquinolones. Antibiotics. 2021;10:582.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu X, Zheng H, Zhang W, Shen Z, Zhao M, Chen Y, Sun L, Shi J, Zhang J. Tracking cefoperazone/sulbactam resistance development in vivo in A. baumannii isolated from a patient with hospital-acquired pneumonia by whole-genome sequencing. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:1268.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hubbard A, Mason J, Roberts P, Parry CM, Corless C, van Aartsen J, Howard A, Bulgasim I, Fraser AJ, Adams ER, Roberts AP. Piperacillin/tazobactam resistance in a clinical isolate of Escherichia coli due to IS26-mediated amplification of blaTEM-1B. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Gangcuangco LM, Alejandria M, Henson KE, Alfaraz L, Ata RM, Lopez M, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole-resistant Escherichia coli among women with acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection in a developing country. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;34:55–60.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Farha MA, Brown ED. Drug repurposing for antimicrobial discovery. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4:565–77.

Miró-Canturri A, Ayerbe-Algaba R, Smani Y. Drug repurposing for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:41. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00041

Quezada H, Martínez-Vázquez M, López-Jácome E, González-Pedrajo B, Andrade Á, Fernández-Presas AM, et al. Repurposed anti-cancer drugs: the future for anti-infective therapy? Expert Rev Anti Infect Therapy. 2020;18:609–12.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hegazy WA, Khayat MT, Ibrahim TS, Nassar MS, Bakhrebah MA, Abdulaal WH, Alhakamy NA, Bendary MM. Repurposing anti-diabetic drugs to cripple quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microorganisms. 2020;8(9):1285.

US National Library of Medicine. The efficacy and safety of Ta1 for sepsis (TESTS). 2021. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02867267. Accessed 17 Nov 2021.

Francois B, Jeannet R, Daix T, Walton AH, Shotwell MS, Unsinger J, Monneret G, Rimmelé T, Blood T, Morre M, Gregoire A. Interleukin-7 restores lymphocytes in septic shock: the IRIS-7 randomized clinical trial. JCI Insight. 2018;3(5):e98960. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.98960.

Choy EH, De Benedetti F, Takeuchi T, Hashizume M, John MR, Kishimoto T. Translating IL-6 biology into effective treatments. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2020;16:335–45.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Honore PM, Hoste E, Molnár Z, Jacobs R, Joannes-Boyau O, Malbrain ML, et al. Cytokine removal in human septic shock: where are we and where are we going? Ann Intensive Care. 2019;9:56.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yuan H, Ma Q, Ye L, Piao G. The traditional medicine and modern medicine from natural products. Molecules. 2016;21(5):559. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21050559. 

Alikiaii B, Bagherniya M, Askari G, Johnston TP, Sahebkar A. The role of phytochemicals in sepsis: a mechanistic and therapeutic perspective. BioFactors. 2021;47:19–40.

Article  CAS