This study was conducted in three zones, South Wello, North Wello and North Shewa zones of the Amhara region, which were severely affected by the conflict under consideration. Even after the signing of a peace agreement between the Ethiopian government and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) in South Africa in 2022, conflict still rages in the region. However, this study focuses primarily on the impact of the 2020–2022-armed conflict on food security and livelihoods of urban and rural areas in the three zones where the impact of the conflict was widespread. The following section presents the conflict’s devastating impact on agricultural products, food security and livelihoods, community social dynamics, basic infrastructure, and the conflict management response and scale of humanitarian assistance.

Destruction of agricultural products and disruption of PSNP services

In 2021, Ethiopia projected to cultivate 13.2 million hectares of land and capture 374 million quintals of agricultural production. Although the Ministry of Agriculture estimated that 12.5 million hectares of land were cultivated during the harvest season, about 50% of the land remained uncultivated due to the conflict in eight zones of the Amhara region [28]. Even those who cultivated their farmland in Gondar and South Wello zones were unable to harvest their crops as they were displaced during the harvest season and left their homes fearing persecution and in search of safety.

An interview with an expert from directorate of Crop Development at the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) on November 2021, indicated that the expansion of the armed conflict from Tigray to the Amhara region has cost the region estimated damage in Amount of $500 million in basic services. This damage includes an estimated loss of agricultural yields amounting to 14 million quintals. This damage not only impacts agricultural production, but also distorts the commodity market, demonstrating the multifaceted impact of the crisis on food availability and access [29]. A study by Muriuki et al. [1]in Ethiopia and Malawi, it was highlighted that disruption of agricultural activities was the main source of vulnerability as most households rely on agriculture for their livelihoods.

As eye witnessed discussants revealed “Farmers simply had no opportunity to harvest as their crops were destroyed prematurely and they were not allowed to engage in agricultural activities.” In addition, the interview with the natural resource management officer showed that 70% of sesame production is expected to come from conflict areas, which could have a negative impact on the country’s economy. Regardless of the situation of food availability in the central market, small farmers are more affected as families do not have food until the next harvest.

As the interview with Productive Safety-Net Program (PSNP) revealed, farmers who rely on PSNP were affected by the disruption of food distribution due to safety concerns as well as the looting of resources at the PSNP warehouse. The most important feature in this context is the looting of food aid stored in Kombolcha. FGD discussants shared that even after the eviction of TPLF forces from most of the South and North Wello zones of the Amhara region, thousands of people remain displaced and it is not possible for these vulnerable communities to purchase food as they have no means of income; As their livelihoods are destroyed and stolen, they are dependent on limited assistance.

Impact of the armed conflict on food security and livelihoods of communities

Ethiopia has faced one of its worst crises since 2016 and is in greatest need of aid in 2021. In northern Ethiopia alone, an estimated 5.5 million people suffer from acute food insecurity. The country faced numerous threats, exacerbated by desert locust infestations and the COVID-19 pandemic. The armed conflict that began in the Tigray region spread to neighboring Amhara and Afar regions, displacing more than half a million people. This has led to disruption of livelihoods, including agriculture, which is responsible for the resulting devastating food insecurity [30].

The FAO’s Global Information and Early Armed Conflict System on Food and Agriculture (GIEWS) [31] stated that the Amhara region accounts for 30% of national grain production. According to the key informant from BOA, the conflict has had a significant impact at both regional and national levels, affecting production, displacing or killing people and destroying basic livelihoods. FGD discussants shared that during the conflict, livestock was the main target, with animals being looted and deliberately killed.

As the expert from office of food security in North Wello shared, worsening food insecurity posed greater risks to vulnerable communities such as pregnant and nursing mothers, the elderly and children under five. The risk of malnutrition is increasing so much that these vulnerable groups are exposed to opportunistic diseases such as cholera and typhoid. These factors further worsen malnutrition because the body’s immune system is weakened [32]. A study prelude to the testimony on the prevalence and determinants of malnutrition among pregnant and lactating in Ethiopia’s war-affected areas of North Gondar Zone, Ethiopia [33]. According to this study, more than one-third (34.3%) of pregnant and lactating women were severely malnourished.

As to FGDs and key informants from disaster and risk management office, livestock, agricultural equipment and grain storage facilities are looted in many conflict areas. Many households that rely on labor for their livelihoods are affected as most productive economic activities have been damaged by the conflict. The harvest season is below expected average as agricultural activities are affected by farmers being displaced from their farmlands due to the frustrating environment that the conflict has created for agricultural activities.

Hence the conflict was occurred during the harvest season in the Amhara region, communities were forced to flee their homes and abandon their ripe crops almost at the harvest stage. Group discussants in North Shewa and South Wello said that “the armed forces were consuming immature crops directly from the farm. and the remaining were damaged after because farmers were unable to harvest the crops on time.” As the expert from disaster and risk management office explained “thousands of farmers, whose food and livelihoods depend exclusively on agriculture, were displaced to urban areas such as the towns of Dessie and Kombolcha and forced to go for days without food aid.”

Rain-fed farming is dominant in the region, so farmers would take some time to start harvesting in the next few months. This requires the security of their home villages from the threat of armed conflict to ensure the return and resettlement of life back home. An expert from bureau of agriculture said that ”given the looting of food supplies in Amhara by TPLF forces and the fact that the international community, including humanitarian actors, had given little attention to the dire situation for several months, there was no sufficient food and cash support to meet the food needs of the displaced community.”

Impact of the conflict in the asset and local economy

The armed conflict also resulted in immense destruction of human capital, public and private assets, including the killing of livestock, damage of agricultural land, looting and burning of agricultural equipment, damage to basic services, as well as indirect impacts that have a negative impact on the market. For example, oxen are one of the very important farm animals in the farming community. As group discussants witnessed, “When parts of South Wello, North Wello, North Shewa areas were controlled by TPLF forces, farm animals were deliberately killed to break the morale of farmers who resisted the occupation. In addition, they slaughter farmers’ livestock to feed their militias.” The incident, in addition to its short-term impact in terms of loss of vital assets, will create a bottleneck for small farmers as cattle are important for plowing agricultural land.

A key informant from North Wello said that the forces used to come to farmhouses or local markets to ask for livestock, including goats, sheep and oxen, for a lot of money. The farmers had no choice between selling or withdrawing from the transaction. Victim households had only one choice: sell assets at a price set by armed groups. However, the armed groups came the next day and demanded the same farmer return the money they had received. As interviews with key informants showed, during the period when TPLF troops controlled most of the Wello area, the group used the old currency to purchase food and non-food items from residents of Genete town in the South Wello zone. This has left small businesses economically damaged.

A key informant who witnessed the tragic consequences of the armed conflict said that the armed forces forcibly asked small business owners for food and non-food items without paying for them. In most cases, they even looted the shops mercilessly and physically and mentally abused the shop owners. The groups and individuals involved in such actions were not only those officially involved in the armed conflict, but also opportunistic robbers who stole public and private property. A similar study from the Tigray region [7] reported that high levels of food insecurity may be due to a lack of physical and economic access to sufficient food in the communities studied due to armed conflict and siege. Due to the high cost of food and the persistent high levels of war-related poverty, food remains out of reach for people.

Supported finding also showed that farmers may be forced to abandon their fields, reducing food production and ultimately affecting access to adequate nutrition and food supplies [1]. In such situations, basic infrastructures damaged including health, farmer field schools as well as livestock and agricultural products could be stolen, warehouses destroyed and distribution networks set up. This has a direct and negative impact on food transport and distribution networks and farmers and their families health [34].

Impact of the conflict on infrastructure and basic services

Affected by this conflict are agricultural research institutions whose mission is to develop and multiply improved agricultural technologies to improve food security. In addition, district and zonal bureaus of agriculture and disaster and risk management, veterinary services were also among the basic private and public facilities affected. This will impact the vitality of the region’s agricultural and livestock sectors in the coming years in the short and long term [31]. In order to renovate them and make them functional again, very large investments are required. The required investments will not be easy to secure as other essential services have been destroyed by armed conflict, such as schools, health facilities and industrial parks. In this case, agricultural research institutions, which form the basic infrastructures for the development and dissemination of technologies to increase productivity and production, will suffer for the foreseeable future, which will affect the revival of crop and animal production.

The market system was disrupted. Access to the market was severely affected. In some cases, although there was access to markets, there were supply shortages, inadequate access to cash as livelihoods were destroyed, and the armed forces’ mishandling of market forces affected the functionality of market centers. Communities were also not interested in going to the market for fear of attacks that could lead to injuries, killings and abuse. Food accessibility has been significantly affected by the destruction and restriction of local open markets. As FGDs revealed “the TPLF combatants had laid restrictions upon communities not to go to open markets and make exchange of goods. They would also come to the markets and collect the money from farmers who have sold their crops and livestock”.

Water and sanitation infrastructure was damaged by this conflict. Most of these facilities are out of service for several reasons. The main causes include looting, intentional damage and lack of maintenance services during the period of conflict. In addition, the health system has been under serious strain as health facilities have been looted and damaged and health workers have left the workplace for fear of persecution, where disease is prevalent and children, mothers and other vulnerable community members are unable to access health services. These factors impact the utilization component of food security, as disease and poor nutritional intake place vulnerable groups at risk of malnutrition. The damage to schools, market and communication facilities, roads, health, and water and sanitation facilities directly and indirectly impact food security and livelihoods of communities by affecting the ability of communities in the affected area to access basic services.

Impact of armed conflict on social dynamics

The armed conflict and subsequent violence led to a persistent damage of social dynamics such as the interaction, trust, cooperation within the affected communities and with others. The psychological damage that these communities have to endure over a long period of time impacted their trust towards the government and institutions. In particular, as the expert from disaster and risk management office said, internally displaced people faced the most tragic consequences of armed conflict due to a lack of meaningful support from the government and aid organizations. IDPs use negative coping mechanisms such as begging for food, which is culturally sensitive and affects their sense of dignity.

Social and religious values have also been undermined as a result of armed conflicts. FGDs reported that some fertile lands were used as cemeteries. This will make matters even more complex as cultivation in cemeteries is considered culturally inappropriate in communities in the Amhara region. This impacts households as means of production are reduced where food availability is at risk. Fetching water and growing crops in a cemetery are considered culturally unacceptable in the region. Communities in the Amhara region often choose designated religious areas as cemeteries. The purpose of the culture in the region is to open cemeteries only for the burial of corpses.

One of the effects of armed conflict is the disruption of the local interaction mechanisms of the communities. Moreover, the deliberate network blockages and the lack of access to communication channels affected the exchange of goods and services. Communication often helps poor people by facilitating the social interaction that would have enabled poor people to deal with the negative effects of the crisis. It would allow the free flow of information across the armed forces, identifying markets that are functioning well, the safest routes to market, and relatives seeking refuge and comfort with relatives and friends.

The traditional social support mechanisms that Ethiopians have demonstrated for decades were the main sources of support for displaced communities in various IDP centers during the escalation of the armed conflict. However, such traditional support mechanisms were disrupted by the immense displacement and lack of resources.

The interconnectedness between conflict, food security, livelihoods, and social dynamics

In this study, the relationship between conflict, food security, livelihoods, and social dynamics is found to intricate and interconnected, with each element influencing and being influenced by the others. As the interconnectedness of conflict, food insecure, livelihoods, and social dynamics revealed in this study; these elements created feedback loops where each factor reinforced or exacerbated the others. Conflict can led to food insecurity, which in turn fuelled social tensions and further conflict.

The conflict in the disrupted the food production, distribution, and access, and lead to displacement, destruction of infrastructure, and loss of livelihoods, which in turn resulting in food insecurity. The production of agriculture was disrupted by the conflict, affecting crops, livestock, and access to markets. This disruption led to food shortages and increased prices.

Regarding to the relationship between food security and livelihoods, hence many people were dependent on agriculture and related activities for their livelihoods, food insecurity aroused when these livelihoods were disrupted, affecting income and access to food. Cyclical relationship was unfolded when food insecurity had further weakened livelihoods by reducing productivity and income, creating a cycle that is hard to break without external assistance.

With respect to the relationship between livelihoods and social dynamics, prior to the conflict, livelihoods used to play a crucial role in shaping social dynamics within communities. Economic stability had its role in strengthening the social cohesion and resilience among the studied communities. However, vulnerability of livelihoods due to the conflict led to social tensions, competition for resources, and increased vulnerability to external shocks. Further, lack of grievance system and lack of opportunities to recover and rehabilitate from the conflict contributed to the disruption of the social dynamics. This in turn has caused social dynamics within communities to further exacerbated or mitigated conflict risks. Weak social networks and community cohesion contributed to affect the conflict resolution and peacebuilding efforts.

In conclusion, the relationship between conflict, food security, livelihoods, and social dynamics is complex and multifaceted. Addressing one aspect without considering its impact on the others may not lead to sustainable solutions. Effective interventions require a comprehensive understanding of these interconnections and a multidimensional approach to promote stability, resilience, and sustainable development.

Conflict management response and scale of humanitarian assistance

At the start of the displacement, when thousands of people fled the South Wello, North Wello and North Shewa zones, neither the government nor humanitarian organizations provided assistance. Displaced people use their social networks to access basic needs through family and friend networks and unorganized volunteer assistance from the host community. However, it took several months before organized aid failed to sufficiently reach the displaced communities. It was reported that relevant public and humanitarian actors did not fully appreciate the scale of the crisis and chose to politicize the need for humanitarian assistance. Through several advocacy efforts, humanitarian assistance, including food and non-food items, subsequently began to reach displaced communities in the cities where the IDPs were located. Although humanitarian assistance was provided in small quantities compared to needs, the aid only benefited a small proportion of those in need. A key respondent stated that the level of aid does not take into account the scale of the crisis or the psychological and material damage caused by the armed conflict. With poor harvests, limited humanitarian aid, no functioning market system, and restriction of movement, one can imagine the devastating situation that communities have suffered for months.