World Health Organization. Obesity and overweight. 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight. Accessed June 1.

Lingvay I, Cohen VR, Roux LWC, Sumithran P. Obesity in adults. The Lancet. 2024;404:972–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01210-8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Donini LM, Busetto L, Bischoff SC, Cederholm T, Ballesteros-Pomar MD, Batsis JA, et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Clin Nutr. 2022;41:990–1000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2021.11.014.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Donini LM, Busetto L, Bischoff SC, Cederholm T, Ballesteros-Pomar MD, Batsis JA, et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Obes Facts. 2022;15:321–35. https://doi.org/10.1159/000521241.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gortan Cappellari G, Guillet C, Poggiogalle E, Ballesteros Pomar MD, Batsis JA, Boirie Y, et al. Sarcopenic obesity research perspectives outlined by the sarcopenic obesity global leadership initiative (SOGLI) – proceedings from the SOGLI consortium meeting in Rome November 2022. Clin Nutr. 2023;42:687–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2023.02.018.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Petermann-Rocha F, Balntzi V, Gray SR, Lara J, Ho FK, Pell JP, et al. Global prevalence of sarcopenia and severe sarcopenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2022;13:86–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12783.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arnáiz GE, Cobo AD, Estébanez B, Galindo BD, Maza LDPB, Fondo UA, et al. Prevalence of sarcopenic obesity according to different diagnostic methods and cut-off points in candidates for bariatric surgery. Clin Nutr. 2024;43:1087–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.03.015.

Article  Google Scholar 

Prado MC, Phillips MS, Gonzalez CM, Heymsfield BS. Muscle matters: the effects of medically induced weight loss on skeletal muscle. Lancet Diab Endocrinol. 2024;https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00272-9

Rosenberg HI. Sarcopenia: origins and clinical relevance. J Nutr. 1997;127:990S-S991. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/127.5.990S.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Raghupathy R, Mclean RR, Kiel DP, Hannan MT, Sahni S. Higher abdominal adiposity is associated with higher lean muscle mass but lower muscle quality in middle-aged and older men and women: the framingham heart study. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2023;35:1477–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-023-02427-6.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kirk B, Cawthon PM, Arai H, Ávila-Funes JA, Barazzoni R, Bhasin S et al. The Conceptual Definition of Sarcopenia: Delphi Consensus from the Global Leadership Initiative in Sarcopenia (GLIS). Age Ageing. 2024;53. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afae052

Cho YK, Jung HN, Kim EH, Lee MJ, Park JY, Lee WJ, et al. Association between sarcopenic obesity and poor muscle quality based on muscle quality map and abdominal computed tomography. Obesity. 2023;31:1547–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23733.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ahn H, Kim WD, Ko Y, Ha J, Shin BY, Lee J, et al. Updated systematic review and meta-analysis on diagnostic issues and the prognostic impact of myosteatosis: A new paradigm beyond sarcopenia. Ageing Res Rev. 2021;70:101398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2021.101398.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Prado CM, Batsis JA, Donini LM, Gonzalez MC, Siervo M. Sarcopenic obesity in older adults: a clinical overview. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2024;20:261–77. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-023-00943-z.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Correa-De-Araujo R, Addison O, Miljkovic I, Goodpaster BH, Bergman BC, Clark RV, et al. Myosteatosis in the context of skeletal muscle function deficit: an interdisciplinary workshop at the national institute on aging. Front Physiol. 2020;11:963. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00963.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kalinkovich A, Livshits G. Sarcopenic obesity or obese sarcopenia: a cross talk between age-associated adipose tissue and skeletal muscle inflammation as a main mechanism of the pathogenesis. Ageing Res Rev. 2017;35:200–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2016.09.008.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brown JC, Harhay MO, Harhay MN. The muscle quality index and mortality among males and females. Ann Epidemiol. 2016;26:648–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2016.07.006.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Miljkovic I, Vella CA, Allison M. Computed tomography-derived myosteatosis and metabolic disorders. Diabetes Metab J. 2021;45:482–91. https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2020.0277.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cawthon PM, Visser M, Arai H, Ávila-Funes JA, Barazzoni R, Bhasin S, et al. Defining terms commonly used in sarcopenia research: a glossary proposed by the Global Leadership in Sarcopenia (GLIS) steering committee. European Geriatric Medicine. 2022;13:1239–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41999-022-00706-5.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alves LDPC, Almeida DBS, Lima PD, Neto BP, Miranda LA, Manini T, et al. Muscle quality in older adults: a scoping review. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2023;24:462-7.e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2023.02.012.

Article  Google Scholar 

Tolonen A, Pakarinen T, Sassi A, Kyttä J, Cancino W, Rinta-Kiikka I, et al. Methodology, clinical applications, and future directions of body composition analysis using computed tomography (CT) images: a review. Eur J Radiol. 2021;145:109943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2021.109943.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zijl VCMP, Brindle K, Lu H, Barker BP, Edden R, Yadav N, et al. Hyperpolarized MRI, functional MRI, MR spectroscopy and CEST to provide metabolic information in vivo. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2021;63:209–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.06.003.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rossi PA, Babbanini A, Monte DL, Vantini G, Stabile G, Urbani S, et al. The role of ultrasound muscle parameters for myosteatosis and myofibrosis measurement in young, older, and obese subjects. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2024;25:91–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2023.05.012.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vincenzo DO, Marra M, Sacco MA, Pasanisi F, Scalfi L. Bioelectrical impedance (BIA)-derived phase angle in adults with obesity: a systematic review. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:5238–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2021.07.035.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Saltiel RA, Olefsky MJ. Inflammatory mechanisms linking obesity and metabolic disease. J Clin Investig. 2017;127:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI92035.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

López-Armada JM, Riveiro-Naveira RR, Vaamonde-García C, Valcárcel-Ares NM. Mitochondrial dysfunction and the inflammatory response. Mitochondrion. 2013;13:106–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mito.2013.01.003.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li CW, Yu K, Shyh-Chang N, Jiang Z, Liu T, Ma S, et al. Pathogenesis of sarcopenia and the relationship with fat mass: descriptive review. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2022;13:781–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12901.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gorgey A, Ogawa M, Lester R, Akima H. Quantification of intermuscular and intramuscular adipose tissue using magnetic resonance imaging after neurodegenerative disorders. Neural Regen Res. 2017;12:2100. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.221170.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gallagher D, Kuznia P, Heshka S, Albu J, Heymsfield BS, Goodpaster B, et al. Adipose tissue in muscle: a novel depot similar in size to visceral adipose tissue. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:903–10. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/81.4.903.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dubé MC, Lemieux S, Piché ME, Corneau L, Bergeron J, Riou ME, et al. The contribution of visceral adiposity and mid-thigh fat-rich muscle to the metabolic profile in postmenopausal women. Obesity. 2011;19:953–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2010.348.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Addison O, Marcus LR, Lastayo CP, Ryan SA. Intermuscular fat: a review of the consequences and causes. Intl J Endocrinol. 2014;2014:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/309570.

Article  Google Scholar 

Borghi S, Bonato M, Torre LA, Banfi G, Vitale AJ. Interrelationship among thigh intermuscular adipose tissue, cross-sectional area, muscle strength, and functional mobility in older subjects. Medicine. 2022;101:e29744. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000029744.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khoja SS, Moore GC, Goodpaster