Expedited IRB approval was completed through the institution, #22–015.

This study is a retrospective descriptive analysis examining scores used within the program as part of the regular collection of data.

Data was available to faculty in the program as part of regularly collected program data. The study was conducted at a 2-year hybrid DPT program in a private primarily nonresidential college in the USA.

Data was analyzed for three cohorts of entry-level DPT students (n = 259) admitted to the program in 2020 and 2021 (two cohorts admitted in 2021).

The first and second quarters of the 8-quarter program include foundational science courses, applied science courses, evidence-based practice, therapeutic interventions, and the first two patient management courses in the musculoskeletal system. Figure 1 outlines the courses in each respective quarter.

DPT program courses in Quarter 1 and Quarter 2 of an 8-quarter program

Students complete a baseline LASSI during orientation. This data is used in individual academic coaching meetings with faculty to discuss areas of growth. During orientation, students also complete a science of learning course after taking the LASSI. The asynchronous course is self-paced, expected to be completed over a period of 4 weeks before the first quarter commences, and has a focus on evidence-based learning principles. An initial module explains the neuroscience of how the brain learns and retains knowledge for long-term use and provides myth busters of commonly misunderstood perceptions of learning. The next module provides descriptions and specific illustrations of how to use concrete examples, dual coding, elaboration, interleaving, spaced practice, and retrieval practice while learning. A module on self-awareness with learning provides perspectives to enhance learning, including exercise, focusing techniques, sleep and stress management, an environment conducive for studying, and the impact of emotions on learning. The last module provides an introduction to the Master Adaptive Learner framework [21] with a description and examples of the self-regulation of learning via metacognition, curiosity, motivation, and a growth mindset to support adaptive expertise, clinical reasoning, and the process of life-long learning. There is no content in the science of learning course that specifically addresses the LASSI scale components or LASSI results. There is no assessment within the science of learning course.

All data were examined retrospectively from the DPT program database and included data readily available and tracked as part of DPT program outcomes. While the data was initially recorded in an identifiable manner for program tracking and outcomes, researchers pulled data and removed identifying information for this research. The subjects were not contacted or re-identified.

The LASSI for Online Learning (LLO) is an adapted version of LASSI; this tool was used to measure strategic learning strategies. The online learning version [22] of this tool uses the same language but substitutes classroom environment language with home/remote learning. The same ten scales are used to summarize perception of specific learning strategies. Figure 2 provides the descriptions of each LASSI scale. LASSI includes statements asking users to describe their behavior or thoughts using a Likert scale. The assessment is a 60-question inventory that takes 10–15 min to complete. Each LASSI scale score was reported as a standardized percentile and scores were distributed into three groups: low (< 50th percentile), moderate (50th–75th percentile), and high (> 75th percentile) categories of perceived ability related to learning and study strategies [23]. Low to moderate perceived ability may indicate a need for development of more effective strategic learning [23].

Descriptions of the 10 LASSI scales

Program GPA data (quarter 1 and quarter 2 GPA) and Quarter 1 course grades for Human Anatomy I and Physiology were available as part of program data records. Foundational anatomy and physiology courses can be challenging in DPT education; therefore, these individual course grades were included in the analysis.

All data analyses were performed using SPSS v 27 with an alpha level of < 0.05. Demographic data was summarized with descriptive statistics. While the first measurement of the LASSI was taken during orientation (pre-LASSI), a second measurement of the LASSI was collected at the end of the 2nd quarter of the program for all students (post-LASSI). Mean scale percentile scores were used for comparisons of pre- and post-LASSI scores with a paired t-test. Cohen’s criteria were utilized to interpret effect-size for statistically significant findings: 0.2, small; 0.5, moderate; and 0.8, large effect [24].

Bivariate correlations (Spearman’s rho, \(\rho\)) described relationships between LASSI results and academic scores including human anatomy I, physiology, Quarter 1 GPA and Quarter 2 GPA. Interpretation of correlation strength was as follows: strong/high (0.70 to 1.0), moderate (0.50 to 0.70), low/weak (0.30 to 0.50), and negligible (0.0 to 0.30) [25].