World Health Organization. Adolescent pregnancy. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy. Accessed 4 Apr 2023.

Sabet F, Prost A, Rahmanian S, Al Qudah H, Cardoso MN, Carlin JB, et al. The forgotten girls: the state of evidence for health interventions for pregnant adolescents and their newborns in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet. 2023;402(10412):1580–96.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McGrath JJ, Petersen L, Agerbo E, Mors O, Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB. A comprehensive assessment of parental age and psychiatric disorders. JAMA Psychiat. 2014;71(3):301–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hvolgaard Mikkelsen S, Olsen J, Bech BH, Obel C. Parental age and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(2):409–20.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Myers JE, Falster K, Hanly M, Banks E, Lynch J, Chambers G, et al. Maternal age and offspring developmental vulnerability at age five: a population-based cohort study of Australian children. PLoS Med. 2018;15(4): e1002558.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ganchimeg T, Ota E, Morisaki N, Laopaiboon M, Lumbiganon P, Zhang J, et al. Pregnancy and childbirth outcomes among adolescent mothers: a World Health Organization multicountry study. BJOG : an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology. 2014;121(s1):40–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walker DA, Holtfreter K. Adolescent motherhood, depression, and delinquency. J Child Fam Stud. 2015;25(3):939–48.

Article  Google Scholar 

Shephard E, Fatori D, Mauro LR, de Medeiros Filho MV, Hoexter MQ, Chiesa AM, et al. Effects of maternal psychopathology and education level on neurocognitive development in infants of adolescent mothers living in poverty in Brazil. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2019;4(10):925–34.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Du J, Rolls ET, Gong W, Cao M, Vatansever D, Zhang J, et al. Association between parental age, brain structure, and behavioral and cognitive problems in children. Mol Psychiatry. 2022;27(2):967–75.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee JO, Jeong CH, Yuan C, Boden JM, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Noris M, et al. Externalizing behavior problems in offspring of teen mothers: a meta-analysis. J Youth Adolesc. 2020;49(6):1146–61.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sari NP, Jansen PW, Blanken LME, Ruigrok ANV, Prinzie P, Tiemeier H, et al. Maternal age, autistic-like traits and mentalizing as predictors of child autistic-like traits in a population-based cohort. Mol Autism. 2022;13–26(1):26.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bolte S, Neufeld J, Marschik PB, Williams ZJ, Gallagher L, Lai MC. Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions. Nat Rev Neurol. 2023;19(3):136–59.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Walsh K, McCormack CA, Webster R, Pinto A, Lee S, Feng T, et al. Maternal prenatal stress phenotypes associate with fetal neurodevelopment and birth outcomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019;116(48):23996–4005.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wu CY, Lee TS. Impact of parent-child relationship and sex on trajectories of children internalizing symptoms. J Affect Disord. 2020;260:167–73.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

National Research Council (US) Panel on Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbearing. Risking the Future: Adolescent Sexuality, Pregnancy, and Childbearing, Volume II: Working Papers and Statistical Appendices. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1987.

Achenbach TM, Ivanova MY, Rescorla LA, Turner LV, Althoff RR. Internalizing/Externalizing Problems: Review and Recommendations for Clinical and Research Applications. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;55(8):647–56.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Papachristou E, Flouri E. The codevelopment of internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and cognitive ability across childhood and adolescence. Dev Psychopathol. 2020;32(4):1375–89.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garavan H, Bartsch H, Conway K, Decastro A, Goldstein RZ, Heeringa S, et al. Recruiting the ABCD sample: design considerations and procedures. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:16–22.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Casey BJ, Cannonier T, Conley MI, Cohen AO, Barch DM, Heitzeg MM, et al. The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: imaging acquisition across 21 sites. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:43–54.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Luciana M, Bjork JM, Nagel BJ, Barch DM, Gonzalez R, Nixon SJ, et al. Adolescent neurocognitive development and impacts of substance use: Overview of the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) baseline neurocognition battery. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:67–79.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Murray MJ, Mayes SD, Smith LA. Brief report: excellent agreement between two brief autism scales (Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder and Social Responsiveness Scale) completed independently by parents and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(11):1586–90.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Volkmar FR. Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Switzerland: Springer Cham; 2013.

Book  Google Scholar 

Thijssen S, Collins PF, Luciana M. Pubertal development mediates the association between family environment and brain structure and function in childhood. Dev Psychopathol. 2019;32(2):687–702.

Article  Google Scholar 

Lees B, Mewton L, Jacobus J, Valadez EA, Stapinski LA, Teesson M, et al. Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with psychological, behavioral, and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study. Am J Psychiatry. 2020;177(11):1060–72.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hoffman L, Bann C, Higgins R, Vohr B, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health Human Development Neonatal Research Network. Developmental outcomes of extremely preterm infants born to adolescent mothers. Pediatrics. 2015;135(6):1082–1092.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Karabulut A, Ozkan S, Bozkurt AI, Karahan T, Kayan S. Perinatal outcomes and risk factors in adolescent and advanced age pregnancies: comparison with normal reproductive age women. Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2013;33(4):346–50.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pagliaccio D, Durham K, Fitzgerald KD, Marsh R. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms among children in the adolescent brain and cognitive development study: clinical, cognitive, and brain connectivity correlates. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6(4):399–409.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Destrieux C, Fischl B, Dale A, Halgren E. Automatic parcellation of human cortical gyri and sulci using standard anatomical nomenclature. Neuroimage. 2010;53(1):1–15.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hagler DJ Jr, Hatton S, Cornejo MD, Makowski C, Fair DA, Dick AS, et al. Image processing and analysis methods for the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. Neuroimage. 2019;202:116091.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rossee Y. lavaan: an R package for structural equation modeling. J Stat Softw. 2012;48(2):1–36.

Google Scholar 

Yu YF, Liew ZY, Wang AL, Arah OA, Li JL, Olsen J, et al. Mediating roles of preterm birth and restricted fetal growth in the relationship between maternal education and infant mortality: A Danish population-based cohort study. PloS Med. 2019;16(6):18.

Article  Google Scholar 

Osterman MJK, Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Driscoll AK, Valenzuela CP, Division of Vital Statistics. Births: Final Data for 2021. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2023;72(1):1–53.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mollborn S. Teenage mothers today: what we know and how it matters. Child Dev Perspect. 2017;11(1):63–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kearney MS, Levine PB. Investigating recent trends in the U.S. teen birth rate. J Health Econ. 2015;41:15–29.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Akseer N, Keats EC, Thurairajah P, Cousens S, Betran AP, Oaks BM, et al. Characteristics and birth outcomes of pregnant adolescents compared to older women: an analysis of individual level data from 140,000 mothers from 20 RCTs. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;45:101309.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Maheshwari MV, Khalid N, Patel PD, Alghareeb R, Hussain A. Maternal and neonatal outcomes of adolescent pregnancy: a narrative review. Cureus. 2022;14(6):e25921.

PubMed