Demographic characteristics of study area

There were 374 participants in this study out of which 308 of them are ordinary respondents; 30 of them are FGD members and 36 of them are key informants (Table 1). These study respondents’ ages ranging from 18 to 71 and highest number of respondents were within 45–69 age range. Most of the respondents (83.77%) were Orthodox Christianity followers followed by Muslims (15.58%). Based on the vegetation types of Ethiopia, both Ankasha and Guangua districts belonged to dry evergreen Afromontane forest while Jawi district belonged to Combretum/Terminalia broadleaved deciduous woodland type [43].

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the study area indicating geographic coordinates of study kebeles, number, age category and religion study participants and vegetation types and number of inhabitants of Guangua, Jawi and Ankasha districtsTaxonomic diversity

A total of 39 WEPs distributed across 26 families and 32 genera were identified in the present study indicating a significant level of biodiversity within the study area (Table 1). Comparable results were reported elsewhere in the country [24, 44, 45]. This biodiversity is crucial for ecosystem stability and resilience, offering various ecological services such as soil fertility, air quality and habitat for wildlife. However, the number of WEPs identified in this study is somewhat lower than those from studies performed in Bulen district, northwest Ethiopia [46] and the drylands of the country [22], with 77 and 88 WEPs, respectively.

The Moraceae family had the greatest number of species (6), followed by the Rosaceae family (3), whereas the Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Solanaceae and Urticaceae families were represented by two species each. The remaining 18 families were represented by a single species (45% of the total number). The number of WEPs demonstrate that the environment offers a diverse set of species [47].

Growth forms, plant parts used and mode of consumption

Our study revealed four WEPs growth forms, i.e., trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers, following Kent [48]. Trees (46.15%) and shrubs (41.03%) jointly made up the highest proportion (87.18%) of the WEPs documented. Fruits, leaves, roots, young shoots, gum and nectar are plant parts and/or plant products used for food. Fruits were the most widely used part harvested from 36 WEPs. The diverse growth forms (trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers) and parts used (fruits, leaves, roots, etc.) suggest that these plants play multiple roles in the ecosystem, supporting different organisms and ecological functions.

Most of the reported WEPs were also mentioned in other studies in the country. Thus, 12 species overlap with those from studies in Derashe and Kucha districts (southern Ethiopia) and Bulen districts [46, 49], 16 species overlap with those from Chilga district [45], and 15 species overlap with those from Nech Sar National Park [50]. The use of comparable WEPs nationwide might suggest that people share usage practices and commonalities in WEPs due to ecological adaptations to diverse environmental factors [45].

Among the different WEPs, Carissa spinarum, Cordia Africana, Ficus sur, Ficus vasta, Syzygium guineense, Ximenia Americana and Rumex nervosus were reported from more than 15 districts of the country. The widespread utilization of WEPs, as indicated by multiple citations in Table 2, suggests their ecological importance and potential impact on local ecosystems. Contrary to this, Senegalia mellifera, Ficus laurifolia, Pittosporum viridiflorum and Zizyphus mucronata were not previously reported in Ethiopia for their WEPs uses (Table 2).

Table 2 Wild edible plants used in Guangua, Jawi and Ankasha districts and their previous WEPs use reportsJaccard’s coefficient of similarity index (JI)

Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity index (JI) used to show the degree of similarity of WEPs between the current study and previous studies done in Gojam and Gondar floristic regions (Table 3). Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity index (JI) showed that the study area has the highest (33.33%) species overlaps with Sedie Muja district [52] followed by Tach Gayint district with 31.58% species overlaps [56]. Both Sedie Muja and Tach Gayint districts have three climatic zones, namely, Dega (above 2500 m), Woinadega (2500–1800 m) and Kola (below 1800) which are also similar with study area [52, 56]. The higher species overlaps of the study area with Sedie Muja and Tach Gayint districts may be attributed with similarities in agroecology with the study area. However, slight (5.06%) species overlaps observed between the study area and Metema district which may be attributed with agro-ecologic dissimilarity [43].

Table 3 Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity index of the study area on degree species similarity with other study areas in Amhara regionPerception of local communities on WEPs use

A total of 374 respondents participated in the assessment of current local community WEPs use. Two hundred five of them (54.8%) responded that they received income from them to support their family in addition to household consumption. The rest of the participants, on the other hand, either did not earn enough money to sustain their families (n = 66; 17.6%) or did so only with extreme difficulty (n = 103; 27.5%). Respondents were asked whether there had been incidents of food shortage in their locality during their life. Approximately half (n = 187; 50%) answered positively. On the other hand, 159 (42.5%) respondents said they had not experienced any food shortage in their community, whereas 28 (7.5%) had no clear idea.

WEPs collection and consumption are currently vital practices in local communities. However, there was a response variance among respondents on WEPs consumption rates when food scarcity was mentioned. Of the 374 respondents, 218 (58.29%) said they used WEPs during food shortages, while the remaining 156 (41.71%) did not think that WEPs might be considered a solution to cover food shortages. However, 89% (N = 335) of respondents reported consuming WEPs for reasons other than food scarcity, such as its use as a supplement and for therapies. Furthermore, our research revealed that the majority of respondents (88.5%) had either had prior WEPs use experience or had at least witnessed them. In terms of WEPs consumption frequency, 170 (45.45%) respondents confirmed that they consumed WEPs extremely frequently, whereas 196 (52.41%) respondents ate WEPs on a regular basis. Only 2.13% of responders only occasionally harvested WEPs. Our study demonstrated that WEPs intake in the study area is a daily activity that is widely acknowledged to be highly relevant.

The respondents were requested to answer the question ‘In which circumstances does the community use WEPs?’ Our study revealed that community members consume WEPs during the drier periods of the year (especially children, N = 186, 49.73%), during prolonged drought and famine (N = 100, 26.74%) and as emergency food in food-insecure conditions (N = 57, 15.24%) and for other unspecified reasons (N = 31, 8.29). WEPs consumption for supplementary, emergency and seasonal conditions was confirmed by a comprehensive study performed by Lulekal, Asfaw [1] in the country.

Economic contribution and marketability of WEPs

Local communities fulfill their socioeconomic needs by selling crop products such as sorghum, maize and teff, as well as animal products such as cattle, horses, sheep and goats. Additionally, they engage in charcoal production, local trade, including traditional crafts and market transactions, and the sale of wild edible plant (WEPs) products, either individually or in combination with two or more of the aforementioned activities. Selected WEPs were observed to be sold at local markets and around school gates (Fig. 3).

Syzygium guineense, Oxytenanthera abyssinica and Dioscorea prahensilis were the top three WEPs frequently mentioned for sale in local markets (Table 4). Similarly, D. prahensilis had the highest mean market price of 30.20 Ethiopian Birr (ETB)/kg. D. prahensilis produces root tubers from May to early June, when there is limited rain in the region (Jawi district) and little abundance, which may cause the price to be relatively higher than that of the other marketed WEPs. The sale of WEPs provides a source of income for many families, relying on this income in addition to household consumption. This economic aspect is crucial in regions where other reliable income sources might be limited. However, the widespread utilization and economic reliance on WEPs sale, may put pressure on these species, leading to overharvesting. As a result, special conservation policy should be employed for sustainable use of aforementioned WEPs.

Table 4 Mean market price and frequency of citation on WEPs sale for livelihoodThreats on WEPs conservation and future use

The extent to which human activities pose a threat to WEPs in their natural habitats varies by location and level of impact [46, 49]. The types of threats and their levels of impact on WEPs conservation were identified following Bekele, Woldeyes [77] using the priority ranking method [40]. Ten key informants were selected and asked to list and rank WEPs conservation threats on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 1 being the least destructive and 5 the most destructive threat; following Balemie and Kebebew [49] and Berihun and Molla [46]. A total of five threats to WEPs were identified in the study area (Table 3). In descending order, agricultural expansion and land-use change, deforestation for construction and firewood, and overharvesting/selective harvesting of multipurpose trees were the three most-cited destructive factors (Table 5). Similar studies from elsewhere in the country evidenced comparable threats to WEPs [22, 49, 70]. The threats identified, such as agricultural expansion, deforestation and selective harvesting, further endanger these species and their ecosystems, potentially leading to reduced biodiversity and degradation of natural resources.

Table 5 Priority ranking of threats to WEP conservation (Key: R = Respondents)Direct matrix ranking for the multipurpose use of WEPs

The 36 key informants (KI) were requested to free list multipurpose uses of WEPs and number of citation by KI was summed up and used as a prioritizing criterion. Top six more frequently mentioned WEPs selected downwards and randomized for fairness. Similarly, five use categories were also filtered out from free listings. Direct matrix ranking was employed to rank these six WEPs (Cordia africana, Zizyphus mucronata, Ficus sycomorus, Ximenia americana, Dioscorea prahensilis, and Embelia schimperi) across the five use categories following Martin [40]. Ranking was carried out based on the opinions of 10 key informants (from the three districts) to assess the relative importance of the six WEPs in the study area over different use categories (Table 6). Five use categories, namely, traditional medicine, wood for fuel, construction materials, fencing and farm utensils, were used to compare the utilization of the selected WEPs, rated from 0 to 4, where 0 signifies not used, 1 indicates least used, 2 reflects good use, 3 implies very good use, and 4 denotes excellent use.

Table 6 Direct matrix ranking of six WEPs in five use categories

The top three ranked use categories reported by respondents for the six WEPs are wood fuel, fencing and construction material, in decreasing order (Table 6). Comparable results for various use categories, such as medicine, construction materials, fuel wood and fencing, were reported elsewhere in the country [45, 46]. Among the six WEPs, Embelia schimperi and Zizyphus mucronata were the most commonly used plants for multiple purposes followed by Cordia africana and Ficus sycomorus, respectively. Cosequently, plants such as Zizyphus mucronata and Embelia schimperi, which ranked highest in versatility, should be prioritized for conservation efforts because of their diverse uses and potential overexploitation.