A comparative analysis of data with existing literature in Pakistan

A comparative analysis was conducted on the types and utilization of ethnobotanically significant taxa, juxtaposed with existing data, to discern unique plant species and distinct cultural uses prevalent in the study area. The study presents new ethnobotanical species and approaches for utilization that have not previously been documented. The medicinal category stands out with the highest number of use reports, totaling 600 as detailed in Table 4. This keen reliance on medicinal plant use can be attributed to the challenging geographical terrain of the Hindukush region and the lack of essential healthcare facilities, as highlighted in a prior study [29]. Though literature is available on the medicinal plants of northern Pakistan [30], we report some novel species, novel methods, and target uses. Astragalus oihorensis is used to improve infertility in males and females, while Astragalus owirensis is used against whooping cough. Similarly, Cicer nuristanicum, Geranium parmiricum, Rochelia chitralensis, and Cousinia chitralensis are new species with traditional medicinal uses reported in this work. Adiantum cappillus-veneris is widely reported from many parts of northern Pakistan [6, 31], but it is used to deal with human infertility in this region. Ephedra gerardiana is widely mentioned with medicinal uses [6, 32], while in this region it is widely used to make snuff and sold in the market, a threat to slowing growing and less abundant species [33]. Nepeta cataria is the herb consumed by Markhor, soon after the animal sustains injuries, thus a wild healing agent [34]. Primula denticulata has been used for disorders like asthma, and bronchitis [35], to treat cattle disease [36], but not for pink eye disorder as our study suggests.

The animal feed category encompasses 76 species and 500 use reports. Livestock rearing serves as the primary means of sustenance for those residing in the mountainous regions, a reality consistent with the inhabitants of the study area located in the eastern Hindukush [6]. The plants in the wild of the study area are not only sources of domestic animals but also sustain the life of wild ungulates like the Markhor (Capra falconeri cashmeriensis) which relies on Nepeta cataria as medicine when wounded and forages Ziziphora clinopodiodes during lactation. Such plant species are the backbone to sustain the conservation of iconic species like the Markhor [37]. The Himalayan snow cock (Tetraogallus himalayensis) eats Prunus prostrata and the Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) consumes the fruit of Arum italicum. Conservation of the unique wildlife of this area is directly associated with some of the key plant species [38].

Livestock rearing and herding are integral to the livelihoods of the people in this area, serving as the cornerstone of their existence. Certain plant species such as Quercus baloot, Juniperus excelsa, and Betula utilis exhibit sparse populations and slow growth rates, making them particularly vulnerable to significant consumption pressures. These species were frequently cited, highlighting the intensity of the demands placed upon them [39].

Both urban and rural communities have long prioritized the health of their domesticated and companion animals. In contrast to urban people, residents of the mountains choose wild plants for the good health of their animals [40]. Given the limited access to human healthcare facilities in this area, the challenge is exacerbated when it comes to addressing animal health. Nomads, shepherds, and pastoralists have traditionally relied on plant-based remedies for the well-being of their animals since history and the practice continues [41]. Cannabis sativa was used as feed for polo horses to keep them warm in winter, while in most literature it is a potent drug [42]. In this cultural context, the utilization of Juncus himalensis for treating goat pox, Trachydium roylei for combating liver fluke attacks, Hippuris vulgaris for addressing equine influenza in horses, Astragalus oihorensis for enhancing cattle fertility, Tribulus terrestris for maintaining warmth in hunting dogs, are not visible within ethnobotanical literature [43,44,45].

The human food category has 425 use reports by the informants and embraces 49 species. Our research has shed light on unconventional food plants within the region, with a focus on enhancing food security. Allium chitralicum and Allium carolinianum are among the wild food plants remembered by respondents for their historical uses, particularly during times of famine [2, 44]. Pinus gerardiana, Ferula jaeschkeana, and Rheum webbianum not only serve as edible resources but also constitute the primary sources of income for the local population. However, the methods and quantities in which these resources are collected currently contradict sustainable practices. It is imperative to provide the local community with training on the judicious utilization of WFPs [33]. Capparis spinosa, Chenopodium pamiricum, Chenopodium foliosum, and Thymus linearis are also common wild food plants. However, the collection of floral buds of Capparis spinosa is widespread, discouraging seed production [46]. Many informants have recognized edible wild plants that contain ample nutritional and mineral content capable of meeting human dietary requirements [47].

Within the culturally vibrant study region, plants hold significance not only for their utilitarian purposes but also for their aesthetic appeal and role in cultural celebrations[48]. Certain plants are deeply intertwined with the local belief systems, adding layers of meaning and symbolism to their use [49]. Wearing a wooden amulet made from Pistacia khibenjuk around the neck is thought to offer protection to newborns, shielding them from mortality. On the 21st of March, Juniperus communis is smoked inside households as part of a religious observance to mark the start of the new year. This ritual is believed to serve as a safeguard against malevolent influences and illnesses throughout the upcoming year [50].

In the realm of Khowar poetry, verses sway with the grace of Elaeagnus angustifolia, Tagetes minuta, and Primula denticulata. Poets, fascinated by the fragrance and colors of these plants, weave them into metaphors to extol the beauty of their beloveds. These plants hold unique symbolism within Khowar poetry, not referenced in other works [51]. The data elucidated several culturally significant crafts and tools unique to the local community, distinguishing them from practices found in other cultures. Trachomitum venetum is used to weave ropes, while Acer caesium serves as the primary material for crafting polo sticks [52]. Fraxinus xanthoxyloides finds its purpose in the creation of agricultural implements. The Chitrali sitar, a long-necked, plucked-string musical instrument, is crafted from the wood of Morus alba [50]. These plants not only carry cultural significance but also contribute to the local economy through cash earnings and offer potential for cultivation and sustainable utilization.

Table 4 indicates that 13 taxa serve as timber sources, while 12 are utilized for fuelwood purposes. Among the most prevalent timber species identified are Populus alba, Populus nigra, Salix alba, Morus alba, Platanus orientalis, Morus nigra, Betula utilis, and Juniperus excelsa. Of specific concern are Betula utilis and Juniperus excelsa, which face extensive utilization and have few remaining patches of vegetation [53].

In terms of fuelwood, Quercus baloot, Juniperus excelsa, Artemisia brevifolia, and Sophora mollis emerge as the most frequently cited species. The data highlight the necessity for providing alternative energy options to residents to lighten the consumption pressure on these species [54]. The use category labeled as 'toxic' exhibits the least number of species, with 104 use reports. The residents of this region possess knowledge about the potentially harmful flora and actively discourage the utilization of such species by humans [55].

Informant consensus factor

Table 3 presents the informant consensus factor (ICF) for the nine identified use categories in this study. Overall, the ICF ranges from 0.8 to 0.9, indicating a relatively high level of agreement among informants. Categories such as TECH, VU, TIM, FW, SYM, and TOX exhibit an ICF of 0.9, while MED, AF, and HF have an ICF of 0.8. The ICF reflects the consensus among informants regarding the specific uses of plant species, with values ranging from 0 to 1. Values closer to 1 suggest greater agreement among respondents on taxon utilization, while values closer to 0 indicate either disagreement, species diversity, or less shared information among informants [56]. Our results indicate a substantial level of agreement among informants, suggesting shared knowledge about the benefits of plants for specific purposes. This trend is principally marked in rural areas within mountain landscapes, where limited urbanization exists, and residents heavily rely on plant resources.

Relative frequency of citation

The significance of a taxon to a specific culture is determined by its relative frequency of citation. Well-known species tend to be the most utilized [57]. Platanus orientalis and Juglans regia have exceptionally high relative frequencies of citations, both attaining 0.91. As illustrated in Table 5, these species are versatile, contributing to various use categories such as technology and craft (TECH), timber (TIM), symbolic (SYM), and human food (HF). Their diverse roles make them vital to the local community, establishing their regional importance [25, 58]. Following closely are Capparis spinosa, Morus alba, Thymus linearis, and Quercus baloot, each boasting an RFC of 0.83. Elaeagnus angustifolia secures an RFC of 0.79. Additionally, Cannabis sativa, Carum carvi, and Cucurbita maxima exhibit significant presence, each reaching an RFC of 0.75. Plants with economic significance tend to capture the interest of local communities, a trend observed in many Asian countries [59].

Fidelity level

Table 5 presents the fidelity levels of the taxa considered in the study, comprising a total of 42 species with a fidelity level of 100%. Prominent examples of these highly faithful species include Adiantum cappillus-veneris, Aristida cyanantha, Peganum harmala, etc. Certain species flash more in one specific use category compared to others, and informants express greater confidence when revealing such a taxon [60]. Specifically, the animal feed category displays the highest number of plants with 18 species at 100% fidelity. The snow-capped mountains provide seasonal fodder for animals, and herders are required to select the best options for their livestock [61, 62]. In the medicinal category, 13 species show 100% fidelity showing that people have assigned specific roles to some plants specifically curing ailments [63]. Human food encompasses 7 species with perfect fidelity indicating the knowledge of the people about the nutritious plants in the mountains [64, 65]. Amidst the spectrum of fidelity levels, there are species like Cuscuta europaea (98%), Trachydium roylei (90%), and Quercus baloot (92%), reflecting a historical and enduring use by the community.

Family importance value

Table 5 demonstrates the family importance values (FIV) of the families surveyed, revealing a diversity in their significance. Markedly, Juglandaceae and Platanaceae stand out as the top-ranking families, each boasting a substantial FIV of 0.91. The significance of Juglandaceae, exemplified by species like Juglans regia, extends to the local communities due to its multifaceted contributions in terms of nutrition, medicine, and income generation [64, 65]. Platanaceae, particularly with the presence of Platanus orientalis as a primary source of timber production, holds greater importance. Furthermore, the family carries a significant symbolic value, with the presence of Platanus orientalis in the yard being regarded as a mark of distinction for a noble family [66]. Following closely, Capparidaceae achieves an FIV of 0.83 as it is a source of medicinal and food plants. Capparis spinosa is the widely consumed herb in the area in local cuisine and a broad-spectrum medicinal plant as well [67]. High FIVs for specific plant families underscore their pronounced importance within the cultural context. On the other hand, certain families exhibit lower FIVs, indicating comparatively lesser cultural significance. Notably, Boraginaceae, Typhaceae, Araceae, and Pteridaceae secure lower FIVs, ranging from 0.08 to 0.25.

Jaccard distance

The Jaccard distance, depicted in Fig. 4, and a cluster dendrogram in Fig. 5 show range from 0.63 to its highest at 1. Certain taxa establish versatility with numerous use reports, resulting in lower Jaccard distances, whereas other species exhibit fidelity to a single-use group, leading to maximum distances. Conspicuously, the use category "Toxic" exhibits the maximum Jaccard distance with all other groups, indicating zero similarity with the rest of the use groups. Conversely, the smallest distance (0.63) is observed between the "Timber" and "Technology" use groups as both share tree species [4].

Fig. 5

Jaccard distance heatmap dendrogram showing the cluster of use categories

Data novelty in terms of food security, public health, and environment

The findings of this study shed light on the intricate relationship between environmental changes and food security, particularly in the Hindukush region of northwestern Pakistan. As climate change exacerbates, communities across this area, characterized by their reliance on mountain ecosystems, face amplified vulnerability [68]. With the looming risks to food security in the Hindukush Himalayas, the mountain dwellers are expected to encounter persistent insecurity challenges in the future [69]. We discovered that a variety of wild plants were frequently incorporated into both traditional cuisines and consumed raw as snacks. Allium carolinianum, Allium barszczewskii, Allium chitralicum, Cotoneaster affinis, Prunus prostrata, Rheum emodi, Rheum webbianum, Crataegus songarica, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Berberis lyceum, Ferula jaeschkeana, Morus nigra, Mentha royleana, and Mentha longifolia are some of the most mentioned raw snakes shown in Table 5. This reliance on wild food plants is not merely a historical practice but rather an ongoing aspect of daily sustenance, indicating a profound adaptation of local communities to their environment [70]. The study highlights the mobility of pastoralists and common locals who traverse the mountains, particularly for seasonal harvests of these wild food plants [71]. Thus, the insights garnered from this study offer valuable perspectives on the multifaceted dimensions of food security within the context of environmental change and local adaptation strategies.

In addition to raw snakes, the local community harvests a variety of wild vegetables with high nutritional value, which are then freshly prepared in diverse local cuisines [72] or preserved for winter consumption, ensuring a year-round food supply. Allium carolinianum, Nasturtium officinale, Codonopsis clematidea, Capparis spinosa, Amaranthus viridis, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex longifolius, and Portulaca oleracea are commonly cited by locals as staple ingredients in their cuisine [41]. These species have historically served as vital sources of sustenance during periods of famine and political turmoil, offering nourishment even across borders during conflicts [73]. Therefore, it provides understanding into the species that could potentially serve as food when necessary.

Public health is a major concern in mountains of northern Pakistan [74]. This research sheds light on previously undocumented plants in Pakistani ethnobotanical literature, as well as innovative uses for familiar species. Among the noteworthy discoveries are Astragalus owirensis, Cicer nuristanicum, Geranium parmiricum, Rochelia chitralensis, and Cousinia chitralensis, which emerge as frequently cited novel species. According to an estimate out the 6000 medicinal plant species present in Pakistan 700 are medicinally important [75]. The novel species documented in the current ethnobotanical study have the potential to integrate into folk medicine, aligning with the World Health Organization's advocacy for alternative medicines and preventative healthcare, especially in developing nations [76]. In Pakistan, the traditional Unani and Ayurvedic healing systems are gaining recognition for their therapeutic efficacy. However, the traditional knowledge associated with valuable medicinal plants faces significant threats to its preservation. In Pakistan the Unani and Ayurvedic systems have been increasing therapeutic qualities, but the valuable medicinal plants knowledge system is threatened [77].

In addition to identifying novel species, this study also explores innovative uses for familiar ones. For instance, the utilization of Adiantum cappillus-veneris, as documented by in addressing human infertility, is a noteworthy discovery [6, 31]. Ephedra gerardiana is being processed into snuff and commercially traded, posing a threat to its sustainability and the conservation of less common species. Nepeta cataria, recognized traditionally (Kakakhel, 2020), has been observed in this study as a wild healing agent for Markhor, the iconic national animal of Pakistan. Similarly, while Primula denticulata has historically been employed for treating ailments such as asthma and bronchitis [35] and even utilized in veterinary medicine for cattle diseases [36], our research uncovers its potential efficacy in treating pink eye disorder, expanding its known applications.

Ethnobotany offers profound insights into the myriad of plant species and their sustainable utilization to address pressing environmental issues [78]. In our research area, the sparse vegetation is a result of its location within the dry temperate rain shadow zone. Our findings reveal that certain plant species serve multifaceted roles and are frequently cited. However, these species face vulnerability due to increased consumption. For instance, Quercus baloot is noted by informants as a primary source of fuelwood, yet it also serves as the sole winter forage for wild herbivores like the Markhor when snow blankets the landscape [37]. Rheum webbianum, a scattered species, is a highly demanded wild food plant, while the collectors uproot it in during harvest, a method that can question the conservation of the species [79]. Artemisia brevifolia as seen in the field study is the major soil binder, while it has a relatively high use value of 0.60 and is uprooted to collect for fuel. Such a practice has already caused flash floods in the study area [80]. Some rare gymnosperms like Ephedra gerardiana with a high frequency of citation 0.41 and fidelity level of 75 are burnt to ash to make snuff that is sold in the market. Again, such a process can cause environmental degradation as the species density is comparatively low in the region.