Rethinking evidence in medicine. Nat. Med. 29, 1 (2023).

Upshur, R. E., VanDenKerkhof, E. G. & Goel, V. J. Eval. Clin. Pract. 7, 91–96 (2001).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cartwright, N. & Hardie, J. Evidence-Based Policy: A Practical Guide To Doing It Better (Oxford Univ. Press, 2012).

Upshur, R. E. G. & Colak, E. Theor. Med. Bioethics 24, 283–299 (2003).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Stegenga, J. & Menon, T. Phil. Sci. 84, 414–435 (2017).

Article  Google Scholar 

Landes, J., Osimani, B. & Poellinger, R. Eur. J. Phil. Sci. 8, 3–49 (2018).

Article  Google Scholar 

Parkkinen, V.-P. et al. Evaluating Evidence of Mechanisms in Medicine: Principles and Procedures (Springer, 2018).

Copi, I. M., Cohen, C. & McMahon, K. Introduction to Logic (Pearson Education, 2014).

Fuller, J. & Flores, L. J. Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci. 54, 49–61 (2015).

Article  Google Scholar 

Gyawali, B., Kesselheim, A. S. & Ross, J. S. N. Engl. J. Med. 389, 968–971 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Richardson, N. C., Kasamon, Y., Pazdur, R. & Gormley, N. Lancet Oncol. 23, 563–566 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jefferson, T. et al. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006207.pub6 (2023).

Cash-Goldwasser, S., Reingold, A. L., Luby, S. P., Jackson, L. A. & Frieden, T. R. JAMA Netw. Open 6, e2339443–e2339443 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Greenhalgh, T. J. Eval. Clin. Practice 26, 1070–1077 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Howard, J. et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2014564118 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

US Food and Drug Administration. https://go.nature.com/3Q3OHXo (11 September 2023).