Sung, H. et al. Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 71, 209–249 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rumgay, H. et al. Global, regional and national burden of primary liver cancer by subtype. Eur. J. Cancer 161, 108–118 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: management of hepatocellular carcinoma. J. Hepatol. 69, 182–236 (2018).

Article  Google Scholar 

Ducreux, M. et al. The management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Current expert opinion and recommendations derived from the 24th ESMO/World Congress on Gastrointestinal Cancer, Barcelona, 2022. ESMO Open. 8, 101567 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Echle, A. et al. Deep learning in cancer pathology: a new generation of clinical biomarkers. Br. J. Cancer 124, 686–696 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Friemel, J. et al. Intratumor heterogeneity in hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 21, 1951–1961 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Calderaro, J. et al. Histological subtypes of hepatocellular carcinoma are related to gene mutations and molecular tumour classification. J. Hepatol. 67, 727–738 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Solinas, A. & Calvisi, D. F. Lessons from rare tumors: hepatic lymphoepithelioma-like carcinomas. World J. Gastroenterol. 21, 3472–3479 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Salomao, M., Yu, W. M., Brown, R. S. Jr, Emond, J. C. & Lefkowitch, J. H. Steatohepatitic hepatocellular carcinoma (SH-HCC): a distinctive histological variant of HCC in hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis with associated NAFLD/NASH. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 34, 1630–1636 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Limousin, W. et al. Molecular-based targeted therapies in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and hepato-cholangiocarcinoma refractory to atezolizumab/bevacizumab. J. Hepatol. 79, 1450–1458 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Prueksapanich, P. et al. Liver fluke-associated biliary tract cancer. Gut Liver 12, 236–245 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL-ILCA clinical practice guidelines on the management of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J. Hepatol. 79, 181–208 (2023).

Article  Google Scholar 

Vithayathil, M., Bridegwater, J. & Khan, S. A. Medical therapies for intra-hepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J. Hepatol. 75, 981–983 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nault, J.-C. & Villanueva, A. Biomarkers for hepatobiliary cancers. Hepatology 73, 115–127 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brunt, E. et al. cHCC-CCA: consensus terminology for primary liver carcinomas with both hepatocytic and cholangiocytic differentation. Hepatology 68, 113–126 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rinella, M. E. et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. Ann. Hepatol. 29, 101133 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wong, V. W.-S., Ekstedt, M., Wong, G. L.-H. & Hagström, H. Changing epidemiology, global trends and implications for outcomes of NAFLD. J. Hepatol. 79, 842–852 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Clements, O., Eliahoo, J., Kim, J. U., Taylor-Robinson, S. D. & Khan, S. A. Risk factors for intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Hepatol. 72, 95–103 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jing, W. et al. Diabetes mellitus and increased risk of cholangiocarcinoma: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 21, 24–31 (2012).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Litjens, G. et al. A survey on deep learning in medical image analysis. Med. Image Anal. 42, 60–88 (2017).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wagner, S. J. et al. Transformer-based biomarker prediction from colorectal cancer histology: a large-scale multicentric study. Cancer Cell 41, 1650–1661.e4 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khader, F. et al. Multimodal deep learning for integrating chest radiographs and clinical parameters: a case for transformers. Radiology 309, e230806 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reis-Filho, J. S. & Kather, J. N. Overcoming the challenges to implementation of artificial intelligence in pathology. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 115, 608–612 (2023).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shmatko, A., Ghaffari Laleh, N., Gerstung, M. & Kather, J. N. Artificial intelligence in histopathology: enhancing cancer research and clinical oncology. Nat. Cancer 3, 1026–1038 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cheng, N. et al. Deep learning-based classification of hepatocellular nodular lesions on whole-slide histopathologic images. Gastroenterology 162, 1948–1961.e7 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kiani, A. et al. Impact of a deep learning assistant on the histopathologic classification of liver cancer. NPJ Digit. Med. 3, 23 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Calderaro, J. et al. Deep learning-based phenotyping reclassifies combined hepatocellular-cholangiocarcinoma. Nat. Commun. 14, 8290 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chung, T. & Park, Y. N. Up-to-date pathologic classification and molecular characteristics of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Front. Med. 9, 857140 (2022).

Article  Google Scholar 

Albrecht, T. et al. Deep learning-enabled diagnosis of liver adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology 165, 1262–1275 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lu, M. Y. et al. AI-based pathology predicts origins for cancers of unknown primary. Nature 594, 106–110 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Saillard, C. et al. Predicting survival after hepatocellular carcinoma resection using deep-learning on histological slides. Hepatology 72, 2000–2013 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shi, J.-Y. et al. Exploring prognostic indicators in the pathological images of hepatocellular carcinoma based on deep learning. Gut 70, 951–961 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xie, J. et al. Survival prediction on intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma with histomorphological analysis on the whole slide images. Comput. Biol. Med. 146, 105520 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sjöblom, N. et al. Automated image analysis of keratin 7 staining can predict disease outcome in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatol. Res. 53, 322–333 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cifci, D., Foersch, S. & Kather, J. N. Artificial intelligence to identify genetic alterations in conventional histopathology. J. Pathol. 257, 430–444 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Campanella, G. et al. H&E-based computational biomarker enables universal EGFR screening for lung adenocarcinoma. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2206.10573 (2022).

Echle, A. et al. Artificial intelligence for detection of microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer – a multicentric analysis of a pre-screening tool for clinical application. ESMO Open. 7, 100400 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Echle, A. et al. Deep learning for the detection of microsatellite instability from histology images in colorectal cancer: a systematic literature review. ImmunoInformatics 3–4, 100008 (2021).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Farahmand, S. et al. Deep learning trained on hematoxylin and eosin tumor region of interest predicts HER2 status and trastuzumab treatment response in HER2+ breast cancer. Mod. Pathol. 35, 44–51 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fu, Y. et al. Pan-cancer computational histopathology reveals mutations, tumor composition and prognosis. Nat. Cancer 1, 800–810 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kather, J. N. et al. Pan-cancer image-based detection of clinically actionable genetic alterations. Nat. Cancer 1, 789–799 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang, H. et al. Predicting tumor mutational burden from liver cancer pathological images usin