Chun TW, Moir S, Fauci AS. HIV reservoirs as obstacles and opportunities for an HIV cure. Nat Immunol. 2015;16(6):584–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Deeks SG, Autran B, Berkhout B, Benkirane M, Cairns S, Chomont N, Chun TW, Churchill M, Di Mascio M, Katlama C, et al. Towards an HIV cure: a global scientific strategy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2012;12(8):607–14.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Badley AD, Pilon AA, Landay A, Lynch DH. Mechanisms of HIV-associated lymphocyte apoptosis. Blood. 2000;96(9):2951–64.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chun TW, Nickle DC, Justement JS, Large D, Semerjian A, Curlin ME, O’Shea MA, Hallahan CW, Daucher M, Ward DJ, et al. HIV-infected individuals receiving effective antiviral therapy for extended periods continually replenish their viral reservoir. J Clin Invest. 2005;115(11):3250–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cory TJ, Schacker TW, Stevenson M, Fletcher CV. Overcoming pharmacologic sanctuaries. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2013;8(3):190–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Maldarelli F, Wu X, Su L, Simonetti FR, Shao W, Hill S, Spindler J, Ferris AL, Mellors JW, Kearney MF, et al. HIV latency. Specific HIV integration sites are linked to clonal expansion and persistence of infected cells. Science. 2014;345(6193):179–83.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wagner TA, McLaughlin S, Garg K, Cheung CY, Larsen BB, Styrchak S, Huang HC, Edlefsen PT, Mullins JI, Frenkel LM. HIV latency. Proliferation of cells with HIV integrated into cancer genes contributes to persistent infection. Science. 2014;345(6196):570–3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cohn LB, Silva IT, Oliveira TY, Rosales RA, Parrish EH, Learn GH, Hahn BH, Czartoski JL, McElrath MJ, Lehmann C, et al. HIV-1 integration landscape during latent and active infection. Cell. 2015;160(3):420–32.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Siliciano JD, Kajdas J, Finzi D, Quinn TC, Chadwick K, Margolick JB, Kovacs C, Gange SJ, Siliciano RF. Long-term follow-up studies confirm the stability of the latent reservoir for HIV-1 in resting CD4 + T cells. Nat Med. 2003;9(6):727–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chun TW, Finzi D, Margolick J, Chadwick K, Schwartz D, Siliciano RF. In vivo fate of HIV-1-infected T cells: quantitative analysis of the transition to stable latency. Nat Med. 1995;1(12):1284–90.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chun TW, Engel D, Berrey MM, Shea T, Corey L, Fauci AS. Early establishment of a pool of latently infected, resting CD4(+) T cells during primary HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95(15):8869–73.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hermankova M, Siliciano JD, Zhou Y, Monie D, Chadwick K, Margolick JB, Quinn TC, Siliciano RF. Analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gene expression in latently infected resting CD4 + T lymphocytes in vivo. J Virol. 2003;77(13):7383–92.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Deeks SG. HIV: shock and kill. Nature. 2012;487(7408):439–40.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Orenstein JM. In vivo cytolysis and fusion of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected lymphocytes in lymphoid tissue. J Infect Dis. 2000;182(1):338–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chun TW, Engel D, Mizell SB, Hallahan CW, Fischette M, Park S, Davey RT, Dybul M, Kovacs JA, Metcalf JA, et al. Effect of interleukin-2 on the pool of latently infected, resting CD4 + T cells in HIV-1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Nat Med. 1999;5(6):651–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Prins JM, Jurriaans S, van Praag RM, Blaak H, van Rij R, Schellekens PT, ten Berge IJ, Yong SL, Fox CH, Roos MT, et al. Immuno-activation with anti-CD3 and recombinant human IL-2 in HIV-1-infected patients on potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1999;13(17):2405–10.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lehrman G, Hogue IB, Palmer S, Jennings C, Spina CA, Wiegand A, Landay AL, Coombs RW, Richman DD, Mellors JW, et al. Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study. Lancet. 2005;366(9485):549–55.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Margolis DM. Histone deacetylase inhibitors and HIV latency. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011;6(1):25–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blazkova J, Chun TW, Belay BW, Murray D, Justement JS, Funk EK, Nelson A, Hallahan CW, Moir S, Wender PA, et al. Effect of histone deacetylase inhibitors on HIV production in latently infected, resting CD4(+) T cells from infected individuals receiving effective antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2012;206(5):765–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Igarashi T, Brown CR, Endo Y, Buckler-White A, Plishka R, Bischofberger N, Hirsch V, Martin MA. Macrophage are the principal reservoir and sustain high virus loads in rhesus macaques after the depletion of CD4 + T cells by a highly pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus/HIV type 1 chimera (SHIV): implications for HIV-1 infections of humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98(2):658–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lambotte O, Taoufik Y, de Goër MG, Wallon C, Goujard C, Delfraissy JF. Detection of infectious HIV in circulating monocytes from patients on prolonged highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;23(2):114–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gorry PR, Howard JL, Churchill MJ, Anderson JL, Cunningham A, Adrian D, McPhee DA, Purcell DF. Diminished production of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in astrocytes results from inefficient translation of gag, env, and nef mRNAs despite efficient expression of Tat and Rev. J Virol. 1999;73(1):352–61.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sieweke MH, Allen JE. Beyond stem cells: self-renewal of differentiated macrophages. Science. 2013;342(6161):1242974.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kruize Z, Kootstra NA. The role of macrophages in HIV-1 persistence and Pathogenesis. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:2828.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jordan A, Bisgrove D, Verdin E. HIV reproducibly establishes a latent infection after acute infection of T cells in vitro. EMBO J. 2003;22:1868–77.https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/cdg188.

Dickey LL, Martins LJ, Planelles V, Hanley TM. HIV-1-induced type I IFNs promote viral latency in macrophages. J Leukocyte Biol. 2022;112(5):1343–56.https://doi.org/10.1002/JLB.4MA0422-616R.

Gordon S, Taylor PR. Monocyte and macrophage heterogeneity. Nat Rev Immunol. 2005;5(12):953–64.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Epelman S, Lavine KJ, Randolph GJ. Origin and functions of tissue macrophages. Immunity. 2014;41(1):21–35.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Robbins CS, Hilgendorf I, Weber GF, Theurl I, Iwamoto Y, Figueiredo JL, Gorbatov R, Sukhova GK, Gerhardt LM, Smyth D, et al. Local proliferation dominates lesional macrophage accumulation in atherosclerosis. Nat Med. 2013;19(9):1166–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shen R, Richter HE, Clements RH, Novak L, Huff K, Bimczok D, Sankaran-Walters S, Dandekar S, Clapham PR, Smythies LE, et al. Macrophages in vaginal but not intestinal mucosa are monocyte-like and permissive to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol. 2009;83(7):3258–67.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ganor Y, Zhou Z, Bodo J, Tudor D, Leibowitch J, Mathez D, Schmitt A, Vacher-Lavenu MC, Revol M, Bomsel M. The adult penile urethra is a novel entry site for HIV-1 that preferentially targets resident urethral macrophages. Mucosal Immunol. 2013;6(4):776–86.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ganor Y, Real F, Sennepin A, Dutertre CA, Prevedel L, Xu L, Tudor D, Charmeteau B, Couedel-Courteille A, Marion S, et al. HIV-1 reservoirs in urethral macrophages of patients under suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4(4):633–44.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zalar A, Figueroa MI, Ruibal-Ares B, Baré P, Cahn P, de Bracco MM, Belmonte L. Macrophage HIV-1 infection in duodenal tissue of patients on long term HAART. Antiviral Res. 2010;87(2):269–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Planelles V, Wolschendorf F, Kutsch O. Facts and fiction: cellular models for high throughput screening for HIV-1 reactivating drugs. Curr HIV Res. 2011;9(8):568–78.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar