Laird, A. R. Large, open datasets for human connectomics research: considerations for reproducible and responsible data use. NeuroImage 244, 118579 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bailey, Z. D. et al. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. Lancet 389, 1453–1463 (2017).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Graves, J. L. Jr & Goodman, A. H. Racism, Not Race: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions (Columbia Univ. Press, 2021).

Müller, R. et al. Next steps for global collaboration to minimize racial and ethnic bias in neuroscience. Nat. Neurosci. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-023-01369-6 (2023).

Nature. Why Nature is updating its advice to authors on reporting race or ethnicity. Nature 616, 219–219 (2023).

Abiodun, S. J. ‘Seeing color,’ a discussion of the implications and applications of race in the field of neuroscience. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 13, 280 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Girolamo, T., Parker, T. C. & Eigsti, I. -M. Incorporating dis/ability studies and critical race theory to combat systematic exclusion of black, indigenous, and people of color in clinical neuroscience. Front. Neurosci. 16, 988092 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Green, K. H. et al. A perspective on enhancing representative samples in developmental human neuroscience: connecting science to society. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 16, 981657 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rebello, V. & Uban, K. A. A call to leverage a health equity lens to accelerate human neuroscience research. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 17, 1035597 (2023).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ricard, J. A. et al. Confronting racially exclusionary practices in the acquisition and analyses of neuroimaging data. Nat. Neurosci. 26, 4–11 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rollins, O. Towards an antiracist (neuro)science. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 540–541 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Webb, E. K., Cardenas-Iniguez, C. & Douglas, R. Radically reframing studies on neurobiology and socioeconomic circumstances: a call for social justice-oriented neuroscience. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 16, 958545 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Okun, T. White Supremacy Culture—Still Here https://www.dismantlingracism.org/uploads/4/3/5/7/43579015/okun_-_white_sup_culture.pdf (2021).

Valles, S. Philosophy of Population Health: Philosophy for a New Public Health Era (Routledge, 2018).

Morning, A. Ethnic classification in global perspective: a cross-national survey of the 2000 Census round. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 27, 239–272 (2008).

Article  Google Scholar 

Roberts, D. Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-Create Race in the Twenty-First Century (New Press/ORIM, 2011). This book provides a rich account of how racial categories have been created and maintained in the United States, and how they have been used in biomedical research.

Pitts-Taylor, V. Neurobiologically poor? Brain phenotypes, inequality, and biosocial determinism. Sci. Technol. Hum. Values 44, 660–685 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Rogers, L. O., Niwa, E. Y., Chung, K., Yip, T. & Chae, D. M(ai)cro: centering the macrosystem in human development. Hum. Dev. 65, 270–292 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Dennis, A. C., Chung, E. O., Lodge, E. K., Martinez, R. A. & Wilbur, R. E. Looking back to leap forward: a framework for operationalizing the structural racism construct in minority and immigrant health research. Ethn. Dis. 31, 301–310 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Goldfarb, M. G. & Brown, D. R. Diversifying participation: the rarity of reporting racial demographics in neuroimaging research. NeuroImage 254, 119122 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sterling, E., Pearl, H., Liu, Z., Allen, J. W. & Fleischer, C. C. Demographic reporting across a decade of neuroimaging: a systematic review. Brain Imaging Behav. 16, 2785–2796 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Taylor, L. & Rommelfanger, K. S. Mitigating white Western individualistic bias and creating more inclusive neuroscience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 23, 389–390 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Atkin, A. L. et al. Race terminology in the field of psychology: acknowledging the growing multiracial population in the US. Am. Psychol. 77, 381–393 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Balestra, C. & Fleischer, L. Diversity statistics in the OECD: how do OECD countries collect data on ethnic, racial and indigenous identity? OECD https://doi.org/10.1787/89bae654-en (2018).

American Psychological Association. APA Guidelines on Race and Ethnicity in Psychology: Promoting Responsiveness and Equity https://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-race-ethnicity.pdf (2019).

Flanagin, A., Frey, T. & Christiansen, S. L., AMA Manual of Style Committee. Updated guidance on the reporting of race and ethnicity in medical and science journals. JAMA 326, 621–627 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Duggan, C. P., Kurpad, A., Stanford, F. C., Sunguya, B. & Wells, J. C. Race, ethnicity, and racism in the nutrition literature: an update for 2020. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 112, 1409–1414 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Krieger, N. Structural racism, health inequities, and the two-edged sword of data: structural problems require structural solutions. Front. Public Health 9, 655447 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Saini, A. Superior: the Return of Race Science (Press, 2019).

Zuberi, T. & Bonilla-Silva, E. White Logic, White Methods: Racism and Methodology (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).

Fan, C. C. et al. Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study Linked External Data (LED): Protocol and practices for geocoding and assignment of environmental data. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 52, 101030 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cardenas-Iniguez, C. et al. Building towards an adolescent neural urbanome: expanding environmental measures using linked external data (LED) in the ABCD Study. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101338 (2024). This article provides a comprehensive review of many variables that can be used to directly measure social and physical environments, instead of using race and ethnicity as proxies.

Gonzalez, M. R. et al. Positive economic, psychosocial, and physiological ecologies predict brain structure and cognitive performance in 9-10-year-old children. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 14, 578822 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gonzalez, R. et al. An update on the assessment of culture and environment in the ABCD Study: emerging literature and protocol updates over three measurement waves. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 52, 101021 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hoffman, E. A. et al. Stress exposures, neurodevelopment and health measures in the ABCD study. Neurobiol. Stress 10, 100157 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Meredith, W. J., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Berman, M. G. & Rosenberg, M. D. Effects of the physical and social environment on youth cognitive performance. Dev. Psychobiol. 64, e22258 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zucker, R. A. et al. Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: rationale, description of measures, and early data. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 32, 107–120 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Benmarhnia, T., Hajat, A. & Kaufman, J. S. Inferential challenges when assessing racial/ethnic health disparities in environmental research. Environ. Health 20, 7 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Johfre, S. S. & Freese, J. Reconsidering the reference category. Sociol. Methodol. 51, 253–269 (2021).

Article  Google Scholar 

Roberts, D. E. & Rollins, O. Why sociology matters to race and biosocial science. Annu. Rev. Socio. 46, 195–214 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Using Population Descriptors in Genetics and Genomics Research: a New Framework for an Evolving Field https://doi.org/10.17226/26902 (National Academies Press, 2023). This report summarizes important issues relevant to genetics research and provides concrete recommendations for researchers, including flowcharts, checklists and additional tools for implementation.

Cosgrove, K. T. et al. Limits to the generalizability of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of youth: an examination of ABCD Study baseline data. Brain Imaging Behav. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-022-00665-2 (2022).

White, E. J. et al. Five recommendations for using large-scale publicly available data to advance health among American Indian peoples: the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) StudySM as an illustrative case. Neuropsychopharmacology 48, 263–269 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gard, A. M., Hyde, L. W., Heeringa, S. G., West, B. T. & Mitchell, C. Why weight? Analytic approaches for large-scale population neuroscience data. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 59, 101196 (2023).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lett, E. et al. Health equity tourism: ravaging the justice landscape. J. Med. Syst. 46, 17 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Krieger, N., Boyd, R. W., Maio, F. D. & Maybank, A. Medicine’s privileged gatekeepers: producing harmful ignorance about racism and health. Health Affairs Forefront https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20210415.305480 (2021).

Braveman, P. Health disparities and health equity: concepts and measurement. Annu. Rev. Public Health 27, 167–194 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Braveman, P., Arkin, E., Orleans, T., Proctor, D. & Plough, A. What is health equity? And what difference does a definition make? The Equity Initiative https://resources.equityinitiative.org/handle/ei/418 (2017).

Ford, C. L. & Airhihenbuwa, C. O. Critical race theory, race equity, and public health: toward antiracism praxis. Am. J. Public Health 100, S30–S35 (2010). This article provides a framework for applying concepts of CRT to empirical studies in public health, and other fields focusing on human research.

Ford, C. L. & Airhihenbuwa, C. O. The public health critical race methodology: praxis for antiracism research. Soc. Sci. Med. 71, 1390–1398 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ford, C. L. & Airhihenbuwa, C. O. Commentary: just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a progressive field like public health? Ethn. Dis. 28, 223–230 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar