Hay SI, Abajobir AA, Abate KH, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, Abd-Allah F, et al. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 333 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet. 2017;390(10100):1260–344.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kyu HH, Abate D, Abate KH, Abay SM, Abbafati C, Abbasi N, et al. Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 359 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1859–922.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mokdad AH, Charara R, El Bcheraoui C, Khalil I, Moradi-Lakeh M, Kassebaum NJ, et al. The burden of mental disorders in the Eastern Mediterranean region, 1990–2015: findings from the global burden of disease 2015 study. Int J Public Health. 2018;63(Supplement 1):25–37.

Google Scholar 

Alonso J, Buron A, Bruffaerts R, He Y, Posada-Villa J, Lepine JP, et al. Association of perceived stigma and mood and anxiety disorders: results from the World Mental Health Surveys. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2008;118(4):305–14.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang LH, Kleinman A, Link BG, Phelan JC, Lee S, Good B. Culture and stigma: adding moral experience to stigma theory. Soc Sci Med. 2007;64(7):1524–35.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thornicroft G, Brohan E, Rose D, Sartorius N, Leese M, Group IS. Global pattern of experienced and anticipated discrimination against people with schizophrenia: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet. 2009;373(9661):408–15.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ucok A, Karadayi G, Emiroglu B, Sartorius N. Anticipated discrimination is related to symptom severity, functionality and quality of life in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 2013;209(3):333–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alonso J, Buron A, Rojas-Farreras S, de Graaf R, Haro JM, de Girolamo G, et al. Perceived stigma among individuals with common mental disorders. J Affect Disord. 2009;118(1–3):180–6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Masuch TV, Bea M, Alm B, Deibler P, Sobanski E. Internalized stigma, anticipated discrimination and perceived public stigma in adults with ADHD. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2019;11(2):211–20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Clement S, Schauman O, Graham T, Maggioni F, Evans-Lacko S, Bezborodovs N, et al. What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychol Med. 2015;45(1):11–27.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schnyder N, Panczak R, Groth N, Schultze-Lutter F. Association between mental health-related stigma and active help-seeking: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2017;210(4):261–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Livingston JD, Boyd JE. Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2010;71(12):2150–61.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Corrigan P. How stigma interferes with mental health care. Am Psychol. 2004;59(7):614–25.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Saxena S, Thornicroft G, Knapp M, Whiteford H. Resources for mental health: scarcity, inequity, and inefficiency. Lancet. 2007;370(9590):878–89.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Clay J, Eaton J, Gronholm P, Semrau M, Votruba N. Core components of mental health stigma reduction interventions in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796020000797.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Thornicroft G, Rose D, Kassam A, Sartorius N. Stigma: ignorance, prejudice or discrimination? Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:192–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Van Brakel WH. Measuring health-related stigma—a literature review. Psychol Health Med. 2006;11(3):307–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Evans-Lacko S, Brohan E, Mojtabai R, Thornicroft G. Association between public views of mental illness and self-stigma among individuals with mental illness in 14 European countries. Psychol Med. 2012;42(8):1741–52.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Klin A, Lemish D. Mental disorders stigma in the media: review of studies on production, content, and influences. J Health Commun. 2008;13(5):434–49.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aloud N, Rathur A. Factors affecting attitudes toward seeking and using formal mental health and psychological services among Arab Muslim populations. J Muslim Ment Health. 2009;4(2):79–103.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hasan AA, Musleh M. Barriers to seeking early psychiatric treatment amongst first-episode psychosis patients: a qualitative study. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2017;38(8):669–77.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thornicroft G, Bakolis I, Evans-Lacko S, Gronholm PC, Henderson C, Kohrt BA, et al. Key lessons learned from the INDIGO global network on mental health related stigma and discrimination. World Psychiatr. 2019;18(2):229–30.

Article  Google Scholar 

Brohan E, Elgie R, Sartorius N, Thornicroft G, research G-ESGJS. Self-stigma, empowerment and perceived discrimination among people with schizophrenia in 14 European countries: the GAMIAN-Europe study. Schizophr Res. 2010;122(1–3):232–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brohan E, Slade M, Clement S, Thornicroft G. Experiences of mental illness stigma, prejudice and discrimination: a review of measures. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010;10:80.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Link BG, Yang LH, Phelan JC, Collins PY. Measuring mental illness stigma. Schizophr Bull. 2004;30(3):511–41.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Altwaijri YA, Al-Habeeb A, Al-Subaie AS, Bilal L, Al-Desouki M, Shahab MK, et al. Twelve-month prevalence and severity of mental disorders in the Saudi National Mental Health Survey. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2020;29(3):e1831.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Al-Habeeb A, Altwaijri YA, Al-Subaie AS, Bilal L, Almeharish A, Sampson NA, et al. Twelve-month treatment of mental disorders in the Saudi National Mental Health Survey. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2020;29(3):e1832.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alangari AS, Knox SS, Kristjansson AL, Wen S, Innes KE, Bilal L, et al. Barriers to mental health treatment in the Saudi National Mental Health Survey. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(11):3877.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

AlAteeq D, AlDaoud A, AlHadi A, AlKhalaf H, Milev R. The experience and impact of stigma in Saudi people with a mood disorder. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2018;17:51.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dawood E, Modayfer O. Public Attitude towards Mental Illness and Mental Health Services in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Res Humanit Soc Sci. 2016;6(24):36–57.

Google Scholar 

Shahab M, Al-Tuwaijri F, Kattan N, Bilal L, Hyder S, Mneimneh Z, et al. Implementing the TRAPD model for the Saudi adaptation of the World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview 3.0. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2019;13(1):12.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mneimneh ZN, Heeringa SG, Lin YC, Altwaijri YA, Nishimura R. The Saudi National Mental Health Survey: sample design and weight development. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2020;29(3):e1829.

Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hyder S, Bilal L, Akkad L, Lin Y-C, Al-Habeeb A, Al-Subaie A, et al. Evidence-based guideline implementation of quality assurance and quality control procedures in the Saudi National Mental Health Survey. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2017;11:60.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kessler RC, Ustun TB. The World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative Version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2004;13(2):93–121.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mneimneh Z, Hibben KC, Bilal L, Hyder S, Shahab M, Binmuammar A, et al. Probing for sensitivity in translated survey questions: differences in respondent feedback across cognitive probe types. Transl Interpret. 2018;10(2):73–88.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wright AA, Zhang B, Ray A, Mack JW, Trice E, Balboni T, et al. Associations between end-of-life discussions, patient mental health, medical care near death, and caregiver bereavement adjustment. JAMA. 2008;300(14):1665–73.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Buist-Bouwman M, Ormel J, De Graaf R, Vilagut G, Alonso J, Van Sonderen E, et al. Psychometric properties of the world health organization disability assessment schedule used in the European study of the epidemiology of mental disorders. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2008;17(4):185–97.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Statistics GAf. Census 2010 Riyadh: General authority for statistics 2020. https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/73. Accessed 30 Jun 2022

Dardas LA, Simmons LA. The stigma of mental illness in Arab families: a concept analysis. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2015;22(9):668–79.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abolfotouh MA, Almutairi AF, Almutairi Z, Salam M, Alhashem A, Adlan AA, et al. Attitudes toward mental illness, mentally ill persons, and help-seeking among the Saudi public and sociodemographic correlates. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2019;12:45.

Article