1. López-Boado, YS, Rubin, BK. Macrolides as immunomodulatory medications for the therapy of chronic lung diseases. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2008;8(3):286-291. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2008.01.010.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline2. Shinkai, M, Henke, MO, Rubin, BK. Macrolide antibiotics as immunomodulatory medications: proposed mechanisms of action. Pharmacol Ther. 2008;117(3):393-405. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.11.001.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline3. Chow, AW, Benninger, MS, Brook, I, et al. IDSA clinical practice guideline for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in children and adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(8):e72-e112. doi:10.1093/cid/cir1043.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI4. Mandell, LA, Wunderink, RG, Anzueto, A, et al. Infectious diseases society of America/American thoracic society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(suppl 2):S27-S72. doi:10.1086/511159.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI5. Zithromax, R . [Package Insert]. New York, NY: Division of Pfizer Inc; 2013. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/050710s039,050711s036,050784s023lbl.pdf. Accessed May 24, 2017.
Google Scholar6. Cramer, CL, Patterson, A, Alchakaki, A, Soubani, AO. Immunomodulatory indications of azithromycin in respiratory disease: a concise review for the clinician. Postgrad Med. 2017;129(5):493-499. doi:10.1080/00325481.2017.1285677.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline7. Kitsiouli, E, Antoniou, G, Gotzou, H, et al. Effect of azithromycin on the LPS-induced production and secretion of phospholipase A2 in lung cells. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015;1852(7):1288-1297. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.03.008.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline8. Afshar, M, Foster, CL, Layden, JE, Burnham, EL. Azithromycin use and outcomes in severe sepsis patients with and without pneumonia. J Crit Care. 2016;32:120-125. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2015.12.010.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline9. Martin-Loeches, I, Lisboa, T, Rodriguez, A, et al. Combination antibiotic therapy with macrolides improves survival in intubated patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36(4):612-620. doi:10.1007/s00134-009-1730-y.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline10. Restrepo, MI, Mortensen, EM, Waterer, GW, Wunderink, RG, Coalson, JJ, Anzueto, A. Impact of macrolide therapy on mortality for patients with severe sepsis due to pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2009;33(1):153-159. doi:10.1183/09031936.00054108.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline11. Angus, DC, van der Poll, T. Severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(21):840-851. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1208623.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline12. Angus, DC, Linde-Zwirble, WT, Lidicker, J, Clermont, G, Carcillo, J, Pinsky, MR. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(7):1303-1310. doi:10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI13. Martin, GS, Mannino, DM, Eaton, S, Moss, M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(16):1546-1554. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022139.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI14. Kumar, G, Kumar, N, Taneja, A, et al. Nationwide trends of severe sepsis in the 21st century (2000-2007). Chest. 2011;140(5):1223-1231. doi:10.1378/chest.11-0352.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI15. Adhikari, NK, Fowler, RA, Bhagwanjee, S, Rubenfeld, GD. Critical care and the global burden of critical illness in adults. Lancet. 2010;376(9749):1339-1346. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60446-1.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI16. Póvoa, P, Salluh, JI, Martinez, ML, et al. Clinical impact of stress dose steroids in patients with septic shock: insights from the PROWESS-Shock trial. Crit Care. 2015;19:193. doi:10.1186/s13054-015-0921-x.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline17. Ranieri, VM, Thompson, BT, Barie, PS, et al. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) in adults with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(22):2055-2064. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1202290.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI18. Sprung, CL, Annane, D, Keh, D, et al. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(2):111-124. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa071366.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI19. Ferrer, R, Martin-Loeches, I, Phillips, G, et al. Empiric antibiotic treatment reduces mortality in severe sepsis and septic shock from the first hour: results from a guideline-based performance improvement program. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(8):1749-1755. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000330.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI20. Ferrer, R, Artigas, A, Suarez, D, et al. Effectiveness of treatments for severe sepsis: a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;180(9):861-866. doi:10.1164/rccm.200812-1912OC.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline21. Feng, M, Sun, T, Zhao, Y, Zhang, H. Detection of serum interleukin-6/10/18 levels in sepsis and its clinical significance. J Clin Lab Anal. 2016;30(6):1037-1043. doi:10.1002/jcla.21977.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline22. Krüttgen, A, Rose-John, S. Interleukin-6 in sepsis and capillary leakage syndrome. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 2012;32(2):60-65. doi:10.1089/jir.2011.0062.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI23. Naffaa, M, Makhoul, BF, Tobia, A, et al. Interleukin-6 at discharge predicts all-cause mortality in patients with sepsis. Am J Emerg Med. 2013;31(9):1361-1364. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2013.06.011.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline24. Jekarl, DW, Lee, SY, Lee, J, et al. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic marker and IL-6 as a prognostic marker for sepsis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;75(4):342-347. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2012.12.011.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline25. Ryu, JA, Yang, JH, Lee, D, et al. Clinical usefulness of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as outcome predictors in critically ill patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. PLoS One. 2015;10(9):e0138150. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138150.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline26. Angus, DC, Barnato, AE, Bell, D, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of early goal-directed therapy for septic shock: the ARISE, ProCESS and ProMISe Investigators. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(9):1549-1560. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3822-1.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI27. Jones, AE, Trzeciak, S, Kline, JA. The sequential organ failure assessment score for predicting outcome in patients with severe sepsis and evidence of hypoperfusion at the time of emergency department presentation. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(5):1649-1654. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31819def97.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI28. Raith, EP, Udy, AA, Bailey, M, et al. Prognostic accuracy of the SOFA score, SIRS criteria, and qSOFA score for in-hospital mortality among adults with suspected infection admitted to the intensive care unit. JAMA. 2017;317(3):290-300. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.20328.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline29. Singer, M, Deutschman, CS, Seymour, CW, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):801-810. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.0287.
Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI