Morton GJ, Cummings DE, Baskin DG, Barsh GS, Schwartz MW. Central nervous system control of food intake and body weight. Nature. 2006;443(7109):289–95.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

García-Cáceres C, Balland E, Prevot V, Luquet S, Woods SC, Koch M, et al. Role of astrocytes, microglia, and tanycytes in brain control of systemic metabolism. Nat Neurosci. 2019;22(1):7–14.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Valdearcos M, Myers MG Jr, Koliwad SK. Hypothalamic microglia as potential regulators of metabolic physiology. Nat Metab. 2019;1(3):314–20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Douglass JD, Dorfman MD, Fasnacht R, Shaffer LD, Thaler JP. Astrocyte IKKbeta/NF-kappaB signaling is required for diet-induced obesity and hypothalamic inflammation. Mol Metab. 2017;6(4):366–73.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Valdearcos M, Douglass JD, Robblee MM, Dorfman MD, Stifler DR, Bennett ML, et al. Microglial Inflammatory Signaling Orchestrates the Hypothalamic Immune Response to Dietary Excess and Mediates Obesity Susceptibility. Cell Metab. 2017;26(1):185–97 e3.

Sewaybricker LE, Huang A, Chandrasekaran S, Melhorn SJ, Schur EA. The Significance of Hypothalamic Inflammation and Gliosis for the Pathogenesis of Obesity in Humans. Endocr Rev. 2023;44(2):281–96.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baufeld C, Osterloh A, Prokop S, Miller KR, Heppner FL. High-fat diet-induced brain region-specific phenotypic spectrum of CNS resident microglia. Acta Neuropathol. 2016;132(3):361–75.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kreutzer C, Peters S, Schulte DM, Fangmann D, Turk K, Wolff S, et al. Hypothalamic Inflammation in Human Obesity Is Mediated by Environmental and Genetic Factors. Diabetes. 2017;66(9):2407–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schur EA, Melhorn SJ, Oh S-K, Lacy JM, Berkseth KE, Guyenet SJ, et al. Radiologic evidence that hypothalamic gliosis is associated with obesity and insulin resistance in humans. Obesity. 2015;23(11):2142–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ahrendsen JT, Nong Y, Huo Y, Steele J, Anderson MP. CD8 cytotoxic T-cell infiltrates and cellular damage in the hypothalamus in human obesity. Acta Neuropathol Commun. 2023;11(1):163.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sewaybricker LE, Schur EA, Melhorn SJ, Campos BM, Askren MK, Nogueira GAS, et al. Initial evidence for hypothalamic gliosis in children with obesity by quantitative T2 MRI and implications for blood oxygen-level dependent response to glucose ingestion. Pediatr Obes. 2019;14(2):e12486.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sewaybricker LE, Kee S, Melhorn SJ, Schur EA. Greater radiologic evidence of hypothalamic gliosis predicts adiposity gain in children at risk for obesity. Obesity. 2021;29(11):1770–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sewaybricker LE, Melhorn SJ, Papantoni A, Webb MF, Hua J, Roth CL, et al. Pilot multi-site and reproducibility study of hypothalamic gliosis in children. Pediatr Obes. 2021;16(4):e12732.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li ZA, Samara A, Ray MK, Rutlin J, Raji CA, Shimony JS, et al. Childhood obesity is linked to putative neuroinflammation in brain white matter, hypothalamus, and striatum. Cereb Cortex Commun. 2023;4(2):tgad007.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Samara A, Murphy T, Strain J, Rutlin J, Sun P, Neyman O, et al. Neuroinflammation and White Matter Alterations in Obesity Assessed by Diffusion Basis Spectrum Imaging. Front Hum Neurosci. 2019;13:464.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Neves TMG, Simoes E, Otaduy MCG, de Calfat ELB, Bertolazzi P, da Costa NA et al. Inverse Association Between Hypothalamic N-Acetyl Aspartate/Creatine Ratio and Indices of Body Mass in Adolescents with Obesity - PubMed. J Nutr. 03/03/2022;152(3).

Sewaybricker LE, Schur EA, Melhorn SJ, Campos BM, Askren MK, Nogueira GAS, et al. Initial evidence for hypothalamic gliosis in children with obesity by quantitative T2 MRI and implications for blood oxygen-level dependent response to glucose ingestion. Pediatr Obes. 2019;14(2):e12486.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kreutzer C, Peters S, Schulte DM, Fangmann D, Türk K, Wolff S, et al. Hypothalamic Inflammation in Human Obesity Is Mediated by Environmental and Genetic Factors. Diabetes. 2017;66(9):2407–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baynat L, Yamamoto T, Tourdias T, Zhang B, Prevost V, Infante A, et al. Quantitative MRI Biomarkers Measure Changes in Targeted Brain Areas in Patients With Obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2024;109(7):1850–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rahmanzadeh R, Galbusera R, Lu P‐J, Bahn E, Weigel M, Barakovic M et al. A New Advanced MRI Biomarker for Remyelinated Lesions in Multiple Sclerosis - PubMed. Ann Neurol. 2022;92(3).

Rosenbaum JL, Melhorn SJ, Schoen S, Webb MF, De Leon MRB, Humphreys M, et al. Evidence That Hypothalamic Gliosis Is Related to Impaired Glucose Homeostasis in Adults With Obesity. Diabetes Care. 2022;45(2):416–24.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dong GZ, Zhang QY, Jiao YW, Ma Y, Zhu SM, Zhang LH, et al. The contribution of type 2 diabetes mellitus to hypothalamic inflammation and depressive disorders in young patients with obesity. Ann Transl Med. 2022;10(3):134.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pane A, Videla L, Calvet A, Viaplana J, Vaque-Alcazar L, Ibarzabal A, et al. Hypothalamic Inflammation Improves Through Bariatric Surgery, and Hypothalamic Volume Predicts Short-Term Weight Loss Response in Adults With or Without Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(7):1162–70.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Van De Sande-Lee S, Melhorn SJ, Rachid B, Rodovalho S, De-Lima-Junior JC, Campos BM, et al. Radiologic evidence that hypothalamic gliosis is improved after bariatric surgery in obese women with type 2 diabetes. Int J Obes. 2020;44(1):178–85.

Article  Google Scholar 

Page KA, Luo S, Wang X, Chow T, Alves J, Buchanan TA, et al. Children Exposed to Maternal Obesity or Gestational Diabetes Mellitus During Early Fetal Development Have Hypothalamic Alterations That Predict Future Weight Gain. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(8):1473–80.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dearden L, Ozanne SE. Early life origins of metabolic disease: Developmental programming of hypothalamic pathways controlling energy homeostasis. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2015;39:3–16.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Furigo IC, Dearden L. Mechanisms mediating the impact of maternal obesity on offspring hypothalamic development and later function. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:1078955.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dearden L, Buller S, Furigo IC, Fernandez-Twinn DS, Ozanne SE. Maternal obesity causes fetal hypothalamic insulin resistance and disrupts development of hypothalamic feeding pathways. Mol Metab. 2020;42:101079.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Park S, Jang A, Bouret SG. Maternal obesity-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress causes metabolic alterations and abnormal hypothalamic development in the offspring. PLoS Biol. 2020;18(3):e3000296.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vogt MC, Paeger L, Hess S, Steculorum SM, Awazawa M, Hampel B, et al. Neonatal insulin action impairs hypothalamic neurocircuit formation in response to maternal high-fat feeding. Cell. 2014;156(3):495–509.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Grayson BE, Levasseur PR, Williams SM, Smith MS, Marks DL, Grove KL. Changes in melanocortin expression and inflammatory pathways in fetal offspring of nonhuman primates fed a high-fat diet. Endocrinology. 2010;151(4):1622–32.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

McCurdy CE, Bishop JM, Williams SM, Grayson BE, Smith MS, Friedman JE, et al. Maternal high-fat diet triggers lipotoxicity in the fetal livers of nonhuman primates. J Clin Invest. 2009;119(2):323–35.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rasmussen JM, Thompson PM, Gyllenhammer LE, Lindsay KL, O’Connor TG, Koletzko B, et al. Maternal free fatty acid concentration during pregnancy is associated with newborn hypothalamic microstructure in humans. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022;30(7):1462–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed