Should we officially recognise obesity as a disease? Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017;5:483.

Jee SH, Pastor-Barriuso R, Appel LJ, Suh I, Miller ER 3rd, Guallar E, et al. Body mass index and incident ischemic heart disease in South Korean men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162:42–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Haslam DW, James WPT. Obesity. Lancet. 2005;366:1197–209.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kwock CK, Park JH, Lee MA, Kim EM. Relative risk of dietary patterns and other obesity factors in Korean males above 40 years of age. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2013;42:1753–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hruby A, Manson JE, Qi L, Malik VS, Rimm EB, Sun Q, et al. Determinants and consequences of obesity. Am J Public Health. 2016;106:1656–62.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zaitlen N, Kraft P, Patterson N, Pasaniuc B, Bhatia G, Pollack S, et al. Using extended genealogy to estimate components of heritability for 23 quantitative and dichotomous traits. PLoS Genet. 2013;9:e1003520.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Butt MS, Sultan MT. Coffee and its consumption: benefits and risks. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2011;51:363–73.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Higdon JV, Frei B. Coffee and health: a review of recent human research. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2006;46:101–23.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Santos RMM, Lima DRA. Coffee consumption, obesity and type 2 diabetes: a mini-review. Eur J Nutr. 2016;55:1345–58.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhou A, Hyppönen E. Habitual coffee intake and plasma lipid profile: evidence from UK Biobank. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:4404–13.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nordestgaard AT, Thomsen M, Nordestgaard BG. Coffee intake and risk of obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a Mendelian randomization study. Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44:551–65.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee J, Kim HY, Kim J. Coffee consumption and the risk of obesity in Korean women. Nutrients. 2017;9:1340.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Larsen S, Mikkelsen ML, Frederiksen P, Heitmann B. Habitual coffee consumption and changes in measures of adiposity: a comprehensive study of longitudinal associations. Int J Obes. 2018;42:880–6.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Muhammad HFL, Sulistyoningrum DC, Huriyati E, Lee YY, Manan Wan Muda WA. The interaction between coffee: caffeine consumption, UCP2 gene variation, and adiposity in adults—a cross-sectional study. J Nutr Metab. 2019;2019:9606054.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Narayan VP, Yoon SY. Associations of blood caffeine and genetically predicted coffee consumption with anthropometric measures of obesity: a two sample mendelian randomization study. J Nutr Health Aging. 2022;26:190–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cornelis MC, Kacprowski T, Menni C, Gustafsson S, Pivin E, Adamski J, et al. Genome-wide association study of caffeine metabolites provides new insights to caffeine metabolism and dietary caffeine-consumption behavior. Hum Mol Genet. 2016;25:5472–82.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nakagawa-Senda H, Hachiya T, Shimizu A, Hosono S, Oze I, Watanabe M, et al. A genome-wide association study in the Japanese population identifies the 12q24 locus for habitual coffee consumption: the J-MICC Study. Sci Rep. 2018;8:1493.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cho YS, Go MJ, Kim YJ, Heo JY, Oh JH, Ban H-J, et al. A large-scale genome-wide association study of Asian populations uncovers genetic factors influencing eight quantitative traits. Nat Genet. 2009;41:527–34.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cha S, Park AY, Kang C. A genome-wide association study uncovers a genetic locus associated with thoracic-to-hip ratio in Koreans. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0145220.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhu Z, Li J, Si J, Ma B, Shi H, Lv J, et al. A large-scale genome-wide association analysis of lung function in the Chinese population identifies novel loci and highlights shared genetic aetiology with obesity. Eur Respir J. 2021;58:2100199.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lu X, Wang L, Lin X, Huang J, Charles Gu C, He M, et al. Genome-wide association study in Chinese identifies novel loci for blood pressure and hypertension. Hum Mol Genet. 2015;24:865–74.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee YJ, Lee H, Jang HB, Yoo MG, Im S, Koo SK, et al. The potential effects of HECTD4 variants on fasting glucose and triglyceride levels in relation to prevalence of type 2 diabetes based on alcohol intake. Arch Toxicol. 2022;96:2487–99.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kim Y, Han BG, Group K. Cohort profile: the Korean genome and epidemiology study (KoGES) consortium. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46:e20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ahn Y, Kwon E, Shim J, Park M, Joo Y, Kimm K, et al. Validation and reproducibility of food frequency questionnaire for Korean genome epidemiologic study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007;61:1435–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:2392–404.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Swift DL, McGee JE, Earnest CP, Carlisle E, Nygard M, Johannsen NM. The effects of exercise and physical activity on weight loss and maintenance. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2018;61:206–13.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Park HS, Lee JS. Association with obesity and abdominal obesity according to the kind and amount of coffee intake in Korean adults: 2013~2016 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Nutr Health. 2019;52:369–82.

Article  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization, Western Pacific Region. The Asia-Pacific perspective: redefining obesity and its treatment. Health Communications Australia; 2000.

Marcus JH, Novembre J. Visualizing the geography of genetic variants. Bioinformatics. 2017;33:594–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee A, Lim W, Kim S, Khil H, Cheon E, An S, et al. Coffee intake and obesity: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2019;11:1274.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tuomilehto J, Hu G, Bidel S, Lindström J, Jousilahti P. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among middle-aged Finnish men and women. JAMA. 2004;291:1213–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rosengren A, Dotevall A, Wilhelmsen L, Thelle D, Johansson S. Coffee and incidence of diabetes in Swedish women: a prospective 18‐year follow‐up study. J Intern Med. 2004;255:89–95.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim JH, Park YS. Light coffee consumption is protective against sarcopenia, but frequent coffee consumption is associated with obesity in Korean adults. Nutr Res. 2017;41:97–102.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Freemantle N, Holmes J, Hockey A, Kumar S. How strong is the association between abdominal obesity and the incidence of type 2 diabetes? Int J Clin Pract. 2008;62:1391–6.

Article  CAS