de Sousa T, Andrichik A, Cuellar M, Marson J, Prestera E, Rush K. The 2022 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress. 2022. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022-ahar-part-1.pdf. Accessed 19 July 2024.

Homelessness NAtE. State of Homelessness: 2023 Edition. National Alliance to End Homelessness. https://endhomelessness.org/homelessness-in-america/homelessness-statistics/state-of-homelessness/. Accessed 10 Apr 2024.

Giamarino C, Loukaitou-Sideris A. “The echoes of echo park”: anti-homeless ordinances in neo-revanchist cities. Urban Affairs Review. 2023;60(1):149–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/10780874231162936.

Article  Google Scholar 

Darrah-Okike J, Soakai S, Nakaoka S, Dunson-Strane T, Umemoto K. “It was like I lost everything”: the harmful impacts of homeless-targeted policies. Hous Policy Debate. 2018;28(4):635–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2018.1424723.

Article  Google Scholar 

Knowles H, Vargas K. City of Seattle begins clearing problematic Beacon Hill encampment amid safety concerns. KOMO News. Updated September 15, 2023. https://komonews.com/news/local/beacon-hill-neighborhood-homeless-crisis-encampment-shot-killed-gun-violence-cleanup-king-county-drugs-fentanyl-regional-homelessness-authority-community-danger-safety-spd-police-department-homicide-washington-state. Accessed 19 July 2024.

Reinke K. City plans to sweep homeless encampment in northeast Denver due to health concerns. 9NEWS. Updated October 5, 2023. https://www.9news.com/article/news/local/next/next-with-kyle-clark/denver-to-sweep-homeless-encampment-in-northeast-due-to-health-concerns/73-53438686-83a5-4a2d-9ce4-6362b9af16fb. Accessed 19 July 2024.

Lodge EK, Hoyo C, Gutierrez CM, Rappazzo KM, Emch ME, Martin CL. Estimating exposure to neighborhood crime by race and ethnicity for public health research. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11057-4

Russell KL. Crime risk near reported homeless encampments: a spatial analysis. Portland State University; 2020.

Jones JM. More Americans See U.S. Crime Problem as Serious. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/544442/americans-crime-problem-serious.aspx. Accessed 19 July 2024.

Herring C. Complaint-oriented policing: regulating homelessness in public space. Am Sociol Rev. 2019;84(5):769–800.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hall LJ. Sweeping away survival: how anti-homeless laws & practices infringe on the fundamental right to survive. Loy J Pub Int L. 2022;24:1.

Google Scholar 

City of Grants Pass v. Johnson et al. No. 23-175 (Supreme Court of the United States 2024).

Berk R, Macdonald J. Policing the homeless. Criminol Public Policy. 2010;9(4):813–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00673.x.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rowe M, O’Connell M. Policy essay on policing the homeless: an evaluation of efforts to reduce homeless-related crime. Crim Pub Pol’y. 2010;9:875.

Google Scholar 

Allen B, Nolan ML. Impact of a homeless encampment closure on crime complaints in the Bronx, New York City, 2017: implications for municipal policy. J Evid Based Soc Work (2019). 2022;19(3):356–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/26408066.2022.2043797

Chiang JC, Bluthenthal RN, Wenger LD, Auerswald CL, Henwood BF, Kral AH. Health risk associated with residential relocation among people who inject drugs in Los Angeles and San Francisco, CA: a cross sectional study. BMC Public Health. Apr 25 2022;22(1):823. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13227-4

Mayer M, Mejia Urieta Y, Martinez LS, Komaromy M, Hughes U, Chatterjee A. Encampment clearings and transitional housing: a qualitative analysis of resident perspectives. Health Aff. 2024;43(2):218–25. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2023.01040.

Article  Google Scholar 

Westbrook M, Robinson T. Unhealthy by design: health & safety consequences of the criminalization of homelessness. J Soc Distress Homelessness. 2021;30(2):107–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2020.1763573.

Article  Google Scholar 

Barocas JA, Nall SK, Axelrath S, et al. Population-level health effects of involuntary displacement of people experiencing unsheltered homelessness who inject drugs in US cities. JAMA. 2023;329(17):1478. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.4800.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chang JS, Riley PB, Aguirre RJ, et al. Harms of encampment abatements on the health of unhoused people. SSM - Qualitative Res Health. 2022;2:100064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmqr.2022.100064.

Article  Google Scholar 

Goldshear JL, Kitonga N, Angelo N, Cowan A, Henwood BF, Bluthenthal RN. “Notice of major cleaning”: a qualitative study of the negative impact of encampment sweeps on the ontological security of unhoused people who use drugs. Soc Sci Med. Dec2023;339:116408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116408.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Robinson T. No right to rest: police enforcement patterns and quality of life consequences of the criminalization of homelessness. Urban Aff Rev. 2017;55(1):41–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087417690833.

Article  Google Scholar 

Protecting the health and well-being of people living unsheltered by stopping forcible displacement of encampments. American Public Health Association. https://www.apha.org/-/media/Files/PDF/Policy/20234_StoppingHomelessEncampmentSweeps.pdf. Accessed 19 July 2024.

A guide to understanding NIBRS. United States Department of Justice—Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reporting Program. https://ucr.fbi.gov/nibrs/2011/resources/a-guide-to-understanding-nibrs. Accessed 19 July 2024.

Wong DWS. Several fundamentals in implementing spatial statistics in GIS: using centrographic measures as examples. Ann GIS. 1999;5(2):163–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824009909480525.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mantel N. The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer research. 1967;27(2_Part_1):209–20.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ray B, Korzeniewski SJ, Mohler G, et al. Spatiotemporal analysis exploring the effect of law enforcement drug market disruptions on overdose, Indianapolis, Indiana, 2020–2021. Am J Public Health. 2023;113(7):750–8. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2023.307291.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chan T-C, King C-C. Surveillance and epidemiology of infectious diseases using spatial and temporal clustering methods. US: Springer; 2011. p. 207–34.

Google Scholar 

Li W, Radke JD. Geospatial data integration and modeling for the investigation of urban neighborhood crime. Ann GIS. 2012;18(3):185–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2012.691903.

Article  Google Scholar 

Lodge EK, Haji-Noor Z, Gutierrez CM, et al. Gestational exposure to neighborhood police-reported crime and early childhood blood pressure in Durham. NC Health & Place. 2022;75:102800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102800.

Article  Google Scholar 

Nilsson SF, Nordentoft M, Fazel S, Laursen TM. Homelessness and police-recorded crime victimisation: a nationwide, register-based cohort study. Lancet Public Health. Jun2020;5(6):e333–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30075-X.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bloch S. Aversive racism and community-instigated policing: the spatial politics of Nextdoor. Environ Plann C: polit Space. 2021;40(1):260–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/23996544211019754.

Article  Google Scholar 

Diamond B, Burns R, Bowen K. Criminalizing homelessness: circumstances surrounding criminal trespassing and people experiencing homelessness. Crim Justice Policy Rev. 2021;33(6):563–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/08874034211067130.

Article  Google Scholar 

Li W, Lartey J. New data shows violent crime is up… and also down. The Marshall Project. https://www.themarshallproject.org/2023/11/03/violent-crime-property-data-nibrs-ucr-fbi-2022. Accessed 19 July 2024.

Novac S, Hermer J, Paradis E, Kellen A. More sinned against than sinning? Homeless people as victims of crime and harassment. Finding home: Policy options for addressing homelessness in Canada; 2009. p. 660–71.

Google Scholar