International Association of D, Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus P, Metzger BE, et al. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(3):676–82. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc09-1848.

ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 190: gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(2):e49-e64. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002501.

American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 2. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Supplement_1):S20–42.

Article  Google Scholar 

Metzger BE, Buchanan TA, Coustan DR, et al. Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2007;30 Suppl 2:S251-60.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ben-Haroush A, Yogev Y, Hod M. Epidemiology of gestational diabetes mellitus and its association with Type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2004;21(2):103–13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14984444. Accessed 26 Feb 2024.

Zhang C, Ning Y. Effect of dietary and lifestyle factors on the risk of gestational diabetes: review of epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94(6 Suppl):1975S-1979S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.001032.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ehrlich SF, Ferrara A, Hedderson MM, Feng J, Neugebauer R. Exercise during the first trimester of pregnancy and the risks of abnormal screening and gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(2):425–32.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

OuYang H, Chen B, Abdulrahman AM, Li L, Wu N. Associations between gestational diabetes and anxiety or depression: a systematic review. J Diabetes Res. 2021;2021:9959779. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9959779.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen L, Shi L, Chao MS, Tong X, Wang F. Stressful life events, hypertensive disorders, and high blood sugar during pregnancy. Stress Health. 2020;36(2):160–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2911.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hinkle SN, Buck Louis GM, Rawal S, Zhu Y, Albert PS, Zhang C. A longitudinal study of depression and gestational diabetes in pregnancy and the postpartum period. Diabetologia. 2016;59(12):2594–602.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ferrara A, Kahn HS, Quesenberry CP, Riley C, Hedderson MM. An increase in the incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus: Northern California, 1991–2000. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103(3):526–33. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000113623.18286.20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dabelea D, Snell-Bergeon JK, Hartsfield CL, et al. Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) over time and by birth cohort: Kaiser Permanente of Colorado GDM Screening Program. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(3):579–84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15735191. Accessed 26 Feb 2024.

Zhang F, Dong L, Zhang CP, et al. Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Chinese women from 1999 to 2008. Diabet Med. 2011;28(6):652–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-5491.2010.03205.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang Y, Chen L, Xiao K, et al. Increasing incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Louisiana, 1997–2009. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2012;21(3):319–25. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2011.2838.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Leng J, Shao P, Zhang C, et al. Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus and its risk factors in Chinese pregnant women: a prospective population-based study in Tianjin, China. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(3):e0121029. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121029.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhu Y, Zhang C. Prevalence of gestational diabetes and risk of progression to type 2 diabetes: a global perspective. Curr Diab Rep. 2016;16(1):7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-015-0699-x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen L, Mayo R, Chatry A, Hu G. Gestational diabetes mellitus: its epidemiology and implication beyond pregnancy. Curr Epidemiol Rep. 2016;3(1):11.

Article  Google Scholar 

Deputy NP, Kim SY, Conrey EJ, Bullard KM. Prevalence and changes in preexisting diabetes and gestational diabetes among women who had a live birth - United States, 2012–2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67(43):1201–7. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6743a2.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shah NS, Wang MC, Kandula NR, et al. Gestational diabetes and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy by maternal birthplace. Am J Prev Med. 2022;62(4):e223–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.10.007.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Devlin HM, Desai J, Walaszek A. Reviewing performance of birth certificate and hospital discharge data to identify births complicated by maternal diabetes. Matern Child Health J. 2009;13(5):660–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-008-0390-9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

DeSisto CL, Kim SY, Sharma AJ. Prevalence estimates of gestational diabetes mellitus in the United States, Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), 2007–2010. Prev Chronic Dis. 2014;11:E104. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd11.130415.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hedderson MM, Darbinian JA, Ferrara A. Disparities in the risk of gestational diabetes by race-ethnicity and country of birth. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2010;24(5):441–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.2010.01140.x.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wong VW, Jalaludin B. Gestational diabetes mellitus: who requires insulin therapy? Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2011;51(5):432–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1479-828X.2011.01329.x.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lawlor DA, West J, Fairley L, et al. Pregnancy glycaemia and cord-blood levels of insulin and leptin in Pakistani and white British mother-offspring pairs: findings from a prospective pregnancy cohort. Diabetologia. 2014;57(12):2492–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-014-3386-6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dornhorst A, Paterson CM, Nicholls JS, et al. High prevalence of gestational diabetes in women from ethnic minority groups. Diabet Med. 1992;9(9):820–5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1473322. Accessed 26 Feb 2024.

Fadl HE, Simmons D. Trends in diabetes in pregnancy in Sweden 1998–2012. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2016;4(1):e000221. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjdrc-2016-000221.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ye W, Luo C, Huang J, Li C, Liu Z, Liu F. Gestational diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2022;377:e067946. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2021-067946.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

You H, Hu J, Liu Y, Luo B, Lei A. Risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review & meta-analysis. Indian J Med Res. 2021;154(1):62–77. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_852_18.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dennison RA, Chen ES, Green ME, et al. The absolute and relative risk of type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 129 studies. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2021;171:108625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108625.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams D. Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2009;373(9677):1773–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60731-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(10):1862–8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12351492. Accessed 26 Feb 2024.

Pathirana MM, Lassi Z, Ali A, Arstall M, Roberts CT, Andraweera PH. Cardiovascular risk factors in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2021;22(4):729–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-020-09587-0.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu X, Nianogo RA, Janzen C, et al. Association between gestational diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies with a quantitative bias analysis of uncontrolled confounding. Hypertension. 2024;81(6):1257–68. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.123.22418.

Article