Objectives: Neurofeedback training involves real-time monitoring and self-regulation of neural activity. Neurofeedback training paradigms have been widely employed in the context of meditation. Interestingly, prior research revealed focused attention meditation to be associated with desynchronized, non-harmonic, cross-frequency relationships between alpha and theta rhythms, suggesting cross-frequency decoupling. However, the potential of training these brainwave patterns to assist meditative practices remains unexplored. Methods: We assessed the trainability of non-harmonic alpha-theta cross-frequency relationships during focused attention meditation through EEG-neurofeedback training. Thirty individuals underwent 25 minutes of both experimental and sham training. During experimental training, participants received auditory feedback upon detection of non-harmonic alpha-theta brainwaves, whereas during sham training, feedback was unrelated to the measured brainwaves. Neural changes were assessed locally at training site Pz and globally across all scalp electrodes. Results: Mixed model analyses showed a global, but not local, interaction effect between trainings over time, indicating that the incidence of non-harmonic alpha-theta relationships across the scalp increased during experimental training compared to sham training (p < 0.001). This effect persisted in the post-training resting-state recording (p = 0.004). Notably, these training-induced increases were associated with improvements in depressive mood state (p < 0.001). Furthermore, participants with a higher depressive mood state at baseline showed stronger training effects (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Neurofeedback training can be used to upregulate non-harmonic alpha-theta cross-frequency relationships during focused attention meditation with durable post-training effects, particularly for those experiencing depressive mood symptoms. These findings lay the groundwork for investigating the effectiveness of multiple-session neurofeedback-assisted mindfulness training.

The authors have declared no competing interest.

NA

http://osf.io/z9wck

This work was supported by a KU Leuven Interdisciplinary Networks Grant (IDN/21/022) and a Junior Project Grant from the Flanders Fund for Scientific Research (FWO G046321N).

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

Yes

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

The study was approved by the ethics committee of UZ/KU Leuven (S68049) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

Yes

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

Yes

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Yes

All relevant data are available online on the Open Science Framework

https://osf.io/p93v5/