Thomas SJ, Swanik CB, Kaminski TW, Higginson JS, Swanik KA, Bartolozzi AR, et al. Humeral retroversion and its association with posterior capsule thickness in collegiate baseball players. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2012;21(7):910–6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chambers L, Altchek DW. Microinstability and internal impingement in overhead athletes. Clin Sports Med. 2013;32(4):697–707.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wilk KE, Reinold MM, Andrews JR. The athlete's shoulder. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. 2009. xix, 876 p. p.

Astolfi MM, Struminger AH, Royer TD, Kaminski TW, Swanik CB. Adaptations of the Shoulder to Overhead Throwing in Youth Athletes. J Athl Train. 2015;50(7):726–32.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Edelson G. The development of humeral head retroversion. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2000;9(4):316–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Braun S, Kokmeyer D, Millett PJ. Shoulder injuries in the throwing athlete. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2009;91(4):966–78.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Struhl S. Anterior internal impingement: An arthroscopic observation. Arthroscopy. 2002;18(1):2–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Walch G, Boileau P, Noel E, Donell ST. Impingement of the deep surface of the supraspinatus tendon on the posterosuperior glenoid rim: An arthroscopic study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 1992;1(5):238–45.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jobe FW, Kvitne RS, Giangarra CE. Shoulder pain in the overhand or throwing athlete. The relationship of anterior instability and rotator cuff impingement. Orthop Rev. 1989;18(9):963–75.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Budoff JE, Nirschl RP, Ilahi OA, Rodin DM. Internal impingement in the etiology of rotator cuff tendinosis revisited. Arthroscopy. 2003;19(8):810–4.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kaplan LD, McMahon PJ, Towers J, Irrgang JJ, Rodosky MW. Internal impingement: findings on magnetic resonance imaging and arthroscopic evaluation. Arthroscopy. 2004;20(7):701–4.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Halbrecht JL, Tirman P, Atkin D. Internal impingement of the shoulder: comparison of findings between the throwing and nonthrowing shoulders of college baseball players. Arthroscopy. 1999;15(3):253–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kirchhoff C, Imhoff AB. Posterosuperior and anterosuperior impingement of the shoulder in overhead athletes-evolving concepts. Int Orthop. 2010;34(7):1049–58.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Funakoshi T, Takahashi T, Shimokobe H, Miyamoto A, Furushima K. Arthroscopic findings of the glenohumeral joint in symptomatic anterior instabilities: comparison between overhead throwing disorders and traumatic shoulder dislocation. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2023;32(4):776–85 (Recent study describing common intra-articular pathologies seen with internal impingement in throwing athletes).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Warby SA, Watson L, Ford JJ, Hahne AJ, Pizzari T. Multidirectional instability of the glenohumeral joint: Etiology, classification, assessment, and management. J Hand Ther. 2017;30(2):175–81.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arner JW, Provencher MT, Bradley JP, Millett PJ. Evaluation and Management of the Contact Athlete’s Shoulder. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2022;30(6):e584–94.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mlynarek RA, Lee S, Bedi A. Shoulder Injuries in the Overhead Throwing Athlete. Hand Clin. 2017;33(1):19–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Meister K. Internal impingement in the shoulder of the overhand athlete: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 2000;29(6):433–8.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Foster CR. Multidirectional instability of the shoulder in the athlete. Clin Sports Med. 1983;2(2):355–68.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Malek S, Reinhold EJ, Pearce GS. The Beighton Score as a measure of generalised joint hypermobility. Rheumatol Int. 2021;41(10):1707–16.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mistry A, Campbell RS. Microinstability and internal impingement of the shoulder. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2015;19(3):277–83.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bixby EC AC. Anterior Shoulder Instability in the Throwing Athlete. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine. 2021;29. Important article describing common pathology seen with anterior instability in throwing athletes.

Dewing CB, McCormick F, Bell SJ, Solomon DJ, Stanley M, Rooney TB, et al. An analysis of capsular area in patients with anterior, posterior, and multidirectional shoulder instability. Am J Sports Med. 2008;36(3):515–22.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wilbur RR, Shirley MB, Nauert RF, LaPrade MD, Okoroha KR, Krych AJ, et al. Anterior Shoulder Instability in Throwers and Overhead Athletes: Long-term Outcomes in a Geographic Cohort. Am J Sports Med. 2022;50(1):182–8 (Matched-cohort analysis comparing outcomes of anterior shoulder instability in overhead and throwing athletes with non-throwing athletes which demonstrated similar outcomes in both groups).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Albertson BS, Trasolini NA, Rue JH, Waterman BR. In-Season Management of Shoulder Instability: How to Evaluate, Treat, and Safely Return to Sport. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2023;16(7):295–305.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ma R, Brimmo OA, Li X, Colbert L. Current Concepts in Rehabilitation for Traumatic Anterior Shoulder Instability. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2017;10(4):499–506.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jaggi A, Alexander S. Rehabilitation for Shoulder Instability - Current Approaches. Open Orthop J. 2017;11:957–71.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aldridge R, Stephen Guffey J, Whitehead MT, Head P. The effects of a daily stretching protocol on passive glenohumeral internal rotation in overhead throwing collegiate athletes. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2012;7(4):365–71.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tyler TF, Nicholas SJ, Lee SJ, Mullaney M, McHugh MP. Correction of posterior shoulder tightness is associated with symptom resolution in patients with internal impingement. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38(1):114–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hurley ET, Matache BA, Wong I, Itoi E, Strauss EJ, Delaney RA, et al. Anterior Shoulder Instability Part I-Diagnosis, Nonoperative Management, and Bankart Repair-An International Consensus Statement. Arthroscopy. 2022;38(2):214-23 e7 (International consensus group recommendations on treatment of anterior shoulder instability).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bateman M, Smith BE, Osborne SE, Wilkes SR. Physiotherapy treatment for atraumatic recurrent shoulder instability: early results of a specific exercise protocol using pathology-specific outcome measures. Shoulder Elbow. 2015;7(4):282–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dickens JF, Owens BD, Cameron KL, Kilcoyne K, Allred CD, Svoboda SJ, et al. Return to play and recurrent instability after in-season anterior shoulder instability: a prospective multicenter study. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(12):2842–50.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Buss DD, Lynch GP, Meyer CP, Huber SM, Freehill MQ. Nonoperative management for in-season athletes with anterior shoulder instability. Am J Sports Med. 2004;32(6):1430–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hurley ET, Davey MS, Jamal MS, Manjunath AK, Alaia MJ, Strauss EJ. Return-to-Play and Rehabilitation Protocols following Cartilage Restoration Procedures of the Knee: A Systematic Review. Cartilage. 2021;13(1_suppl):907S-14S.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McIntyre K, Belanger A, Dhir J, Somerville L, Watson L, Willis M, et al. Evidence-based conservative rehabilitation for posterior glenohumeral instability: A systematic review. Phys Ther Sport. 2016;22:94–100.

Article  PubMed