World Health Organization. Management of substance abuse unit. Global status report on alcohol and health. 2014.

World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018: World Health Organization. 2019.

Uganda Bureau of statistics. The national population and housing census 2014-National analytical report. 2017.

Engebretsen IMS, Nalugya JS, Skylstad V, Ndeezi G, Akol A, Babirye JN, et al. “I feel good when I drink”-detecting childhood-onset alcohol abuse and dependence in a Ugandan community trial cohort. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2020;14:42.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Skylstad V, Nalugya J, Skar A-MS, Opesen C, Ndeezi G, Okello E, et al. ‘As soon as they can hold a glass, they begin taking alcohol’: a qualitative study on early childhood substance use in Mbale district Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13140-w.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nalugya JS, Skylstad V, Babirye JN, Ssemata AS, Ndeezi G, Bangirana P, et al. “She gives it to her child who doesn’t even talk”: a qualitative exploration of alcohol and drug use among primary school-age children in Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1):2114.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Huq T, Alexander EC, Manikam L, Jokinen T, Patil P, Benjumea D, et al. A systematic review of household and family alcohol use and childhood neurodevelopmental outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2021;52(6):1194–217.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Countries and economies. 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/country. Accessed 7 April 2023

Kraus L, Room R, Livingston M, Pennay A, Holmes J, Törrönen J. Long waves of consumption or a unique social generation? Exploring recent declines in youth drinking. Addictn Res Theory. 2020;28(3):183–93.

Article  Google Scholar 

Erskine H, Moffitt TE, Copeland W, Costello E, Ferrari A, Patton G, et al. A heavy burden on young minds: the global burden of mental and substance use disorders in children and youth. Psychol Med. 2015;45(7):1551–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Degenhardt L, Stockings E, Patton G, Hall WD, Lynskey M. The increasing global health priority of substance use in young people. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(3):251–64.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ogundipe O, Amoo E, Adeloye D, Olawole-Isaac A. Substance use among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. S Afr J Child Health. 2018;2018(1):s79–84.

Google Scholar 

Ndetei DM, Khasakhala LI, Mutiso V, Ongecha-Owuor FA, Kokonya DA. Patterns of drug abuse in public secondary schools in Kenya. Subst Abuse. 2009;30(1):69–78.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ganz D, Sher L. Suicidal behavior in adolescents with comorbid depression and alcohol abuse. Minerva Pediatr. 2009;61(3):333–47.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Park SH, Kim DJ. Global and regional impacts of alcohol use on public health: Emphasis on alcohol policies. Clin Mol Hepatol. 2020;26(4):652.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Babor TF, Babor T. Alcohol: no ordinary commodity: research and public policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010.

Book  Google Scholar 

DeWit DJ, Adlaf EM, Offord DR, Ogborne AC. Age at first alcohol use: a risk factor for the development of alcohol disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(5):745–50.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hingson RW, Heeren T, Winter MR. Age at drinking onset and alcohol dependence: age at onset, duration, and severity. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160(7):739–46.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Miller MW, Spear LP. The alcoholism generator. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00177.x.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Babor TF, McRee BG, Kassebaum PA, Grimaldi PL, Ahmed K, Bray J. Screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) toward a public health approach to the management of substance abuse. Subst Abuse. 2007;28(3):7–30.

Article  Google Scholar 

Organization WH. Task shifting: global recommendations and guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008. p. 1.

Google Scholar 

Dua T, Barbui C, Clark N, Fleischmann A, Poznyak V, van Ommeren M, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in low-and middle-income countries: summary of WHO recommendations. PLoS Med. 2011;8(11): e1001122.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Agerwala SM, McCance-Katz EF. Integrating screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) into clinical practice settings: a brief review. J Psychoact Drugs. 2012;44(4):307–17.

Article  Google Scholar 

Levitt JM, Saka N, Romanelli LH, Hoagwood K. Early identification of mental health problems in schools: the status of instrumentation. J Sch Psychol. 2007;45(2):163–91.

Article  Google Scholar 

Levy SJ, Kokotailo PK, Committee on Substance Abuse. Substance use screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 2011;128(5):e1330-40. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-175.

Article  Google Scholar 

Källmén H, Berman AH, Jayaram-Lindström N, Hammarberg A, Elgán TH. Psychometric properties of the AUDIT, AUDIT-C, CRAFFT and ASSIST-Y among Swedish adolescents. Eur Addict Res. 2019;25(2):68–77.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

D’Amico EJ, Parast L, Meredith LS, Ewing BA, Shadel WG, Stein BD. Screening in primary care: what is the best way to identify at-risk youth for substance use? Pediatr. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1717.

Article  Google Scholar 

Knight JR, Sherritt L, Harris SK, Gates EC, Chang G. Validity of brief alcohol screening tests among adolescents: a comparison of the AUDIT, POSIT, CAGE, and CRAFFT. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003;27(1):67–73.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dhalla S, Zumbo BD, Poole G. A review of the psychometric properties of the CRAFFT instrument: 1999–2010. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2011;4(1):57–64.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

American Psychiatric Association Division of Research. Highlights of changes from dsm-iv to dsm-5: Somatic symptom and related disorders. Focus. 2013;11(4):525-7. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.11.4.525.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mitchell SG, Kelly SM, Gryczynski J, Myers CP, O’Grady KE, Kirk AS, et al. The CRAFFT cut-points and DSM-5 criteria for alcohol and other drugs: a reevaluation and reexamination. Substance abuse. 2014;35(4):376–80.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pilowsky DJ, Wu L-T. Screening instruments for substance use and brief interventions targeting adolescents in primary care: a literature review. Addict Behav. 2013;38(5):2146–53.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Skylstad V, Aber H, Bakken V, Dierkes J, Iversen SA, Kisaakye E, et al. Child alcohol use disorder in Eastern Uganda: screening, diagnostics, risk factors and management of children drinking alcohol in Uganda (TREAT C-AUD): a mixed-methods research protocol. BMJ Paediatrics Open. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001214.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Statistics UBo. The national population and housing census 2014–Main report. Uganda Bureau of Statistics Kampala. 2016.

Lwangale DW. Genealogical Reconstruction of Lubukusu, Lumasaba and Lugisu. International J Res Dev Org. 2015.

Knight JR, Shrier LA, Bravender TD, Farrell M, Vander Bilt J, Shaffer HJ. A new brief screen for adolescent substance abuse. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153(6):591–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Knight JR, Sherritt L, Shrier LA, Harris SK, Chang G. Validity of the CRAFFT substance abuse screening test among adolescent clinic patients. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156(6):607–14.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Harris SK, Louis-Jacques J, Knight JR. Screening and brief intervention for alcohol and other abuse. Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2014;25(1):126–56.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sousa VD, Rojjanasrirat W. Translation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for use in cross-cultural health care research: a clear and user-friendly guideline. J Eval Clin Pract. 2011;17(2):268–74.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yamane T. Research methods: determination of sample size. 1967.

Sheehan DV, Sheehan KH, Shytle RD, Janavs J, Bannon Y, Rogers JE, et al. Reliability and validity of the mini international neuropsychiatric interview for children and adolescents (MINI-KID). J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(3):313–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2017.06.020.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abbo C, Kinyanda E, Kizza RB, Levin J, Ndyanabangi S, Stein DJ. Prevalence, comorbidity and predictors of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents in rural north-eastern Uganda. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2013;7(1):1–11.

Article  Google Scholar 

Nalugya-Sserunjogi J, Rukundo GZ, Ovuga E, Kiwuwa SM, Musisi S, Nakimuli-Mpungu E. Prevalence and factors associated with depression symptoms among school-going adolescents in Central Uganda. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2016;10:1–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Kinyanda E, Kizza R, Abbo C, Ndyanabangi S, Levin J. Prevalence and risk factors of depression in childhood and adolescence as seen in 4 districts of north-eastern Uganda. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2013;13:1–10.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wong HB, Lim GH. Measures of diagnostic accuracy: sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV. Proc Singap Healthc. 2011;20(4):316–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Patricia Chou S, June Ruan W, Grant BF. Age at first drink and the first incidence of adult-onset DSM-IV alcohol use disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2008. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00806.x.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mitchell SG, Gryczynski J, O’Grady KE, Schwartz RP. SBIRT for adolescent drug and alcohol use: current status and future directions. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013;44(5):463–72.

Article  PubMed