Global Burden of Disease 2021 Low Back Pain Collaborators (2023) Global, regional, and national burden of low back pain, 1990-2020, its attributable risk factors, and projections to 2050: a systematic analysis of the global burden of disease study 2021. Lancet Rheumatol 5:e316–e329. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2665-9913(23)00098-x

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hayden JA, Ellis J, Ogilvie R, Malmivaara A, van Tulder MW (2021) Exercise therapy for chronic low back pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 9:CD009790. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009790.pub2

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wun A, Kollias P, Jeong H, Rizzo RR, Cashin AG, Bagg MK, McAuley JH, Jones MD (2021) Why is exercise prescribed for people with chronic low back pain? A review of the mechanisms of benefit proposed by clinical trialists. Musculoskelet Sci Pract 51:102307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2020.102307

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sipaviciene S, Kliziene I (2020) Effect of different exercise programs on non-specific chronic low back pain and disability in people who perform sedentary work. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 73:17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2019.12.028

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pinto SM, Boghra SB, Macedo LG, Zheng YP, Pang MYC, Cheung JPY, Karppinen J, Samartzis D, Wong AYL (2021) Does motor control exercise restore normal morphology of lumbar multifidus muscle in people with low back pain?—A systematic review. J Pain Res 14:2543–2562. https://doi.org/10.2147/jpr.S314971

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Anderson B, Ordaz A, Zlomislic V, Allen RT, Garfin SR, Schuepbach R, Farshad M, Schenk S, Ward SR, Shahidi B (2022) Paraspinal muscle health is related to fibrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic gene expression in patients with lumbar spine pathology. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 23:608. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-022-05572-7

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shahidi B, Fisch KM, Gibbons MC, Ward SR (2020) Increased fibrogenic gene expression in multifidus muscles of patients with chronic versus acute lumbar spine pathology. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 45:E189-e195. https://doi.org/10.1097/brs.0000000000003243

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hodges PW, James G, Blomster L, Hall L, Schmid A, Shu C, Little C, Melrose J (2015) Multifidus muscle changes after back injury are characterized by structural remodeling of muscle, adipose and connective tissue, but not muscle atrophy: molecular and morphological evidence. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 40:1057–1071. https://doi.org/10.1097/brs.0000000000000972

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

James G, Klyne DM, Millecamps M, Stone LS, Hodges PW (2019) ISSLS prize in Basic science 2019: physical activity attenuates fibrotic alterations to the multifidus muscle associated with intervertebral disc degeneration. Eur Spine J 28:893–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-019-05902-9

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brown SH, Gregory DE, Carr JA, Ward SR, Masuda K, Lieber RL (2011) ISSLS prize winner: Adaptations to the multifidus muscle in response to experimentally induced intervertebral disc degeneration. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 36:1728–1736. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0b013e318212b44b

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hodges PW, Danneels L (2019) Changes in structure and function of the back muscles in low back pain: different time points, observations, and mechanisms. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 49:464–476. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2019.8827

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Goubert D, De Pauw R, Meeus M, Willems T, Cagnie B, Schouppe S, Van Oosterwijck J, Dhondt E, Danneels L (2017) Lumbar muscle structure and function in chronic versus recurrent low back pain: a cross-sectional study. Spine J 17:1285–1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2017.04.025

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ordaz A, Anderson B, Zlomislic V, Allen RT, Garfin SR, Schuepbach R, Farshad M, Schenk S, Ward SR, Shahidi B (2023) Paraspinal muscle gene expression across different aetiologies in individuals undergoing surgery for lumbar spine pathology. Eur Spine J 32:1123–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-023-07543-5

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Noonan AM, Buliung E, Briar KJ, Quinonez D, Séguin CA, Brown SHM (2023) Glycerol induced paraspinal muscle degeneration leads to hyper-kyphotic spinal deformity in wild-type mice. Sci Rep 13:8170. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-35506-9

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hodges PW, James G, Blomster L, Hall L, Schmid AB, Shu C, Little C, Melrose J (2014) Can proinflammatory cytokine gene expression explain multifidus muscle fiber changes after an intervertebral disc lesion? Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 39:1010–1017. https://doi.org/10.1097/brs.0000000000000318

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Storheim K, Berg L, Hellum C, Gjertsen Ø, Neckelmann G, Espeland A, Keller A (2017) Fat in the lumbar multifidus muscles—predictive value and change following disc prosthesis surgery and multidisciplinary rehabilitation in patients with chronic low back pain and degenerative disc: 2-year follow-up of a randomized trial. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 18:145. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-017-1505-5

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jermy JE, Copley PC, Poon MTC, Demetriades AK (2020) Does pre-operative multifidus morphology on MRI predict clinical outcomes in adults following surgical treatment for degenerative lumbar spine disease? A systematic review. Eur Spine J 29:1318–1327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-020-06423-6

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tier L, Salomoni SE, Hug F, Besomi M, Hodges PW (2023) Adaptability of the load sharing between the longissimus and components of the multifidus muscle during isometric trunk extension in healthy individuals. Eur J Appl Physiol 123:1879–1893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-023-05193-5

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gilligan C, Volschenk W, Russo M, Green M, Gilmore C, Mehta V, Deckers K, De Smedt K, Latif U, Georgius P, Gentile J, Mitchell B, Langhorst M, Huygen F, Baranidharan G, Patel V, Mironer E, Ross E, Carayannopoulos A, Hayek S, Gulve A, Van Buyten JP, Tohmeh A, Fischgrund J, Lad S, Ahadian F, Deer T, Klemme W, Rauck R, Rathmell J, Maislin G, Heemels JP, Eldabe S (2023) Long-term outcomes of restorative neurostimulation in patients with refractory chronic low back pain secondary to multifidus dysfunction: two-year results of the reactiv8-b pivotal trial. Neuromodulation 26:87–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurom.2021.10.011

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carlier PG, Marty B, Scheidegger O, Loureiro de Sousa P, Baudin PY, Snezhko E, Vlodavets D (2016) Skeletal muscle quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy as an outcome measure for clinical trials. J Neuromuscul Dis 3:1–28. https://doi.org/10.3233/jnd-160145

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

James G, Millecamps M, Stone LS, Hodges PW (2018) Dysregulation of the inflammatory mediators in the multifidus muscle after spontaneous intervertebral disc degeneration sparc-null mice is ameliorated by physical activity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 43:E1184-e1194. https://doi.org/10.1097/brs.0000000000002656

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

James G, Blomster L, Hall L, Schmid AB, Shu CC, Little CB, Melrose J, Hodges PW (2016) Mesenchymal stem cell treatment of intervertebral disc lesion prevents fatty infiltration and fibrosis of the multifidus muscle, but not cytokine and muscle fiber changes. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 41:1208–1217. https://doi.org/10.1097/brs.0000000000001669

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Scheler M, Irmler M, Lehr S, Hartwig S, Staiger H, Al-Hasani H, Beckers J, de Angelis MH, Häring HU, Weigert C (2013) Cytokine response of primary human myotubes in an in vitro exercise model. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 305:C877-886. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00043.2013

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Koppenhaver S, Gaffney E, Oates A, Eberle L, Young B, Hebert J, Proulx L, Shinohara M (2020) Lumbar muscle stiffness is different in individuals with low back pain than asymptomatic controls and is associated with pain and disability, but not common physical examination findings. Musculoskelet Sci Pract 45:102078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2019.102078

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smith LR, Pichika R, Meza RC, Gillies AR, Baliki MN, Chambers HG, Lieber RL (2021) Contribution of extracellular matrix components to the stiffness of skeletal muscle contractures in patients with cerebral palsy. Connect Tissue Res 62:287–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2019.1694011

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reeves NP, Everding VQ, Cholewicki J, Morrisette DC (2006) The effects of trunk stiffness on postural control during unstable seated balance. Exp Brain Res 174:694–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-006-0516-5

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reeves NP, Cholewicki J (2013) Spine systems science: a primer on the systems approach. In: Hodges PW, Cholewicki J, van Dieen J (eds) Spinal control: the rehabilitation of back pain. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Google Scholar 

Meng XG, Yue SW (2015) Efficacy of aerobic exercise for treatment of chronic low back pain: a meta-analysis. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 94:358–365. https://doi.org/10.1097/phm.0000000000000188

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang XQ, Zheng JJ, Yu ZW, Bi X, Lou SJ, Liu J, Cai B, Hua YH, Wu M, Wei ML, Shen HM, Chen Y, Pan YJ, Xu GH, Chen PJ (2012) A meta-analysis of core stability exercise versus general exercise for chronic low back pain. PLoS ONE 7:e52082. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052082

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fortin M, Rye M, Roussac A, Montpetit C, Burdick J, Naghdi N, Rosenstein B, Bertrand C, Macedo LG, Elliott JM, Dover G, DeMont R, Weber MH, Pepin V (2023) The effects of combined motor control and isolated extensor strengthening versus general exercise on paraspinal muscle morphology, composition, and function in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Med 12(18):5920. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12185920

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Matheve T, Hodges P, Danneels L (2023) The role of back muscle dysfunctions in chronic low back pain: state-of-the-art and clinical implications. J Clin Med 12(17):5510. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12175510

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tieppo Francio V, Westerhaus BD, Carayannopoulos AG, Sayed D (2023) Multifidus dysfunction and restorative neurostimulation: a scoping review. Pain Med. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnad098

Article  PubMed