U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study Group. U.K. Prospective diabetes study 16: overview of 6 years' therapy of type II Diabetes: a progressive disease. Diabetes. 1995;44(11):1249–1258. https://doi.org/10.2337/diab.44.11.1249.

Bo S, Gentile L, Castiglione A, Prandi V, Canil S, Ghigo E, et al. C-peptide and the risk for incident complications and mortality in type 2 diabetic patients: a retrospective cohort study after a 14-year follow-up. Eur J Endocrinol. 2012;167(2):173–80. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-12-0085.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jendle J, Grunberger G, Blevins T, Giorgino F, Hietpas RT, Botros FT. Efficacy and safety of dulaglutide in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a comprehensive review of the dulaglutide clinical data focusing on the AWARD phase 3 clinical trial program. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2016;32(8):776–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.2810.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Seino Y, Yabe D. Alogliptin benzoate for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2014;15(6):851–63. https://doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2014.898750.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McKeage K. Trelagliptin: first global approval. Drugs. 2015;75(10):1161–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-015-0431-9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gerstein HC, Colhoun HM, Dagenais GR, Diaz R, Lakshmanan M, Pais P, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND): a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2019;394(10193):121–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31149-3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Retnakaran R, Kramer CK, Choi H, Swaminathan B, Zinman B. Liraglutide and the preservation of pancreatic beta-cell function in early type 2 diabetes: the LIBRA trial. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(12):3270–8. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-0893.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kondo Y, Satoh S, Osada UN, Terauchi Y. Early liraglutide treatment improves beta-cell function in patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective cohort study. Endocr J. 2015;62(11):971–80. https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ15-0206.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xu L, Man CD, Charbonnel B, Meninger G, Davies MJ, Williams-Herman D, et al. Effect of sitagliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, on beta-cell function in patients with type 2 diabetes: a model-based approach. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2008;10(12):1212–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1326.2008.00887.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alsalim W, Goransson O, Carr RD, Bizzotto R, Tura A, Pacini G, et al. Effect of single-dose DPP-4 inhibitor sitagliptin on beta-cell function and incretin hormone secretion after meal ingestion in healthy volunteers and drug-naive, well-controlled type 2 diabetes subjects. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018;20(4):1080–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13192.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Matsuo S, Imai E, Horio M, Yasuda Y, Tomita K, Nitta K, et al. Revised equations for estimated GFR from serum creatinine in Japan. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009;53(6):982–92. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.12.034.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Levy JC, Matthews DR, Hermans MP. Correct homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) evaluation uses the computer program. Diabetes Care. 1998;21(12):2191–2. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.21.12.2191.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Funakoshi S, Fujimoto S, Hamasaki A, Fujiwara H, Fujita Y, Ikeda K, et al. Utility of indices using C-peptide levels for indication of insulin therapy to achieve good glycemic control in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes. J Diabetes Investig. 2011;2(4):297–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2040-1124.2010.00096.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC. Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia. 1985;28(7):412–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00280883.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Terauchi Y, Satoi Y, Takeuchi M, Imaoka T. Monotherapy with the once weekly GLP-1 receptor agonist dulaglutide for 12 weeks in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: dose-dependent effects on glycaemic control in a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Endocr J. 2014;61(10):949–59. https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.ej14-0147.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Inagaki N, Onouchi H, Maezawa H, Kuroda S, Kaku K. Once-weekly trelagliptin versus daily alogliptin in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015;3(3):191–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70251-7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Harder H, Nielsen L, Tu DT, Astrup A. The effect of liraglutide, a long-acting glucagon-like peptide 1 derivative, on glycemic control, body composition, and 24-h energy expenditure in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(8):1915–21. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.27.8.1915.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zinman B, Gerich J, Buse JB, Lewin A, Schwartz S, Raskin P, et al. Efficacy and safety of the human glucagon-like peptide-1 analog liraglutide in combination with metformin and thiazolidinedione in patients with type 2 diabetes (LEAD-4 Met+TZD). Diabetes Care. 2009;32(7):1224–30. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc08-2124.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Linn T, Schneider K, Goke B, Federlin K. Glucagon-like-peptide-1 (7–36) amide improves glucose sensitivity in beta-cells of NOD mice. Acta Diabetol. 1996;33(1):19–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00571935.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moens K, Flamez D, Van Schravendijk C, Ling Z, Pipeleers D, Schuit F. Dual glucagon recognition by pancreatic beta-cells via glucagon and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptors. Diabetes. 1998;47(1):66–72. https://doi.org/10.2337/diab.47.1.66.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Holst JJ. The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1. Physiol Rev. 2007;87(4):1409–39. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00034.2006.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Drucker DJ, Holst JJ. The expanding incretin universe: from basic biology to clinical translation. Diabetologia. 2023;66(10):1765–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-023-05906-7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kondo Y, Satoh S, Nagakura J, Kimura M, Nezu U, Terauchi Y. Defining criteria for the introduction of liraglutide using the glucagon stimulation test in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Diabetes Investig. 2013;4(6):571–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.12082.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Usui R, Yabe D, Kuwata H, Fujiwara S, Watanabe K, Hyo T, et al. Retrospective analysis of safety and efficacy of insulin-to-liraglutide switch in Japanese type 2 diabetes: A caution against inappropriate use in patients with reduced beta-cell function. J Diabetes Investig. 2013;4(6):585–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.12111.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ohbatake A, Yagi K, Karashima S, Shima Y, Miyamoto Y, Asaka H, et al. C-peptide area under the curve at glucagon stimulation test predicts glucose improvements by GLP-1 receptor analogue: a retrospective observational study. Diabetes Ther. 2019;10(2):673–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13300-019-0586-6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wu S, Gao L, Cipriani A, Huang Y, Yang Z, Yang J, et al. The effects of incretin-based therapies on beta-cell function and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis combining 360 trials. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2019;21(4):975–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13613.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guglielmi C, Del Toro R, Lauria A, Maurizi AR, Fallucca S, Cappelli A, et al. Effect of GLP-1 and GIP on C-peptide secretion after glucagon or mixed meal tests: Significance in assessing B-cell function in diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.2899.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shah M, Vella A. Effects of GLP-1 on appetite and weight. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2014;15(3):181–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-014-9289-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Da Porto A, Casarsa V, Colussi G, Catena C, Cavarape A, Sechi L. Dulaglutide reduces binge episodes in type 2 diabetic patients with binge eating disorder: A pilot study. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4):289–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.03.009.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Funakoshi S, Fujimoto S, Hamasaki A, Fujiwara H, Fujita Y, Ikeda K, et al. Analysis of factors influencing pancreatic beta-cell function in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: association with body mass index and duration of diabetic exposure. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;82(3):353–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2008.09.010.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Saisho Y, Tanaka K, Abe T, Shimada A, Kawai T, Itoh H. Effect of obesity on declining beta cell function after diagnosis of type 2 diabetes: a possible link suggested by cross-sectional analysis. Endocr J. 2012;59(3):187–95. https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.ej11-0206.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Donath MY, Shoelson SE. Type 2 diabetes as an inflammatory disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2011;11(2):98–107. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2925.