World Obesity Federation. World Obesity Atlas https://data.worldobesity.org/publications/?cat (2023).

Haslam, D. W. & James, W. P. T. Obesity. Lancet 366, 1197–1209 (2005).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pi-Sunyer, X. The medical risks of obesity. Postgrad. Med. 121, 21–33 (2009).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization (WHO) Diabetes — Fact Sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes (2022).

Snel, M. et al. Ectopic fat and insulin resistance: pathophysiology and effect of diet and lifestyle interventions. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2012, 983814 (2012).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blüher, M. Adipose tissue dysfunction contributes to obesity related metabolic diseases. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 27, 163–177 (2013).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Canfora, E. E., Meex, R. C. R., Venema, K. & Blaak, E. E. Gut microbial metabolites in obesity, NAFLD and T2DM. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 15, 261–273 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Le Chatelier, E. et al. Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers. Nature 500, 541–546 (2013).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Loftfield, E. et al. Association of body mass index with fecal microbial diversity and metabolites in the northern Finland birth cohort. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 29, 2289–2299 (2020).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Thursby, E. & Juge, N. Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochem. J. 474, 1823–1836 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Browne, A. J. et al. Global antibiotic consumption and usage in humans, 2000–18: a spatial modelling study. Lancet Planet. Health 5, e893–e904 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rinninella, E. et al. What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? A changing ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases. Microorganisms 7, 14 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Price, J., Abu-Ali, G. & Huttenhower, C. The healthy human microbiome. Genome Med. 8, 51–51 (2016).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tremaroli, V. & Backhed, F. Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature 489, 242–249 (2012).

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kalbermatter, C., Fernandez Trigo, N., Christensen, S. & Ganal-Vonarburg, S. C. Maternal microbiota, early life colonization and breast milk drive immune development in the newborn. Front. Immunol. 12, 683022 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lozupone, C. A., Stombaugh, J. I., Gordon, J. I., Jansson, J. K. & Knight, R. Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature 489, 220–230 (2012).

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Heintz-Buschart, A. & Wilmes, P. Human gut microbiome: function matters. Trends Microbiol. 26, 563–574 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zmora, N., Suez, J. & Elinav, E. You are what you eat: diet, health and the gut microbiota. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 16, 35–56 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gibson, G. R. et al. Expert consensus document: the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 14, 491–502 (2017).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Koh, A., De Vadder, F., Kovatcheva-Datchary, P. & Bäckhed, F. From dietary fiber to host physiology: short-chain fatty acids as key bacterial metabolites. Cell 165, 1332–1345 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hamer, H. M., De Preter, V., Windey, K. & Verbeke, K. Functional analysis of colonic bacterial metabolism: relevant to health? Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 302, G1–G9 (2012).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Russell, W. R. et al. High-protein, reduced-carbohydrate weight-loss diets promote metabolite profiles likely to be detrimental to colonic health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 93, 1062–1072 (2011).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Diether, N. E. & Willing, B. P. Microbial fermentation of dietary protein: an important factor in diet–microbe–host interaction. Microorganisms 7, 19 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gawałko, M. et al. Gut microbiota, dysbiosis and atrial fibrillation. Arrhythmogenic mechanisms and potential clinical implications. Cardiovasc. Res. 118, 2415–2427 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Agus, A., Clément, K. & Sokol, H. Gut microbiota-derived metabolites as central regulators in metabolic disorders. Gut 70, 1174–1182 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shah, S. et al. Physical activity-induced alterations of the gut microbiota are BMI dependent. FASEB J. 37, e22882 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Estaki, M. et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a predictor of intestinal microbial diversity and distinct metagenomic functions. Microbiome 4, 42 (2016).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Claesson, M. J. et al. Composition, variability, and temporal stability of the intestinal microbiota of the elderly. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 4586–4591 (2011).

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xu, C., Zhu, H. & Qiu, P. Aging progression of human gut microbiota. BMC Microbiol. 19, 236 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Melander, R. J., Zurawski, D. V. & Melander, C. Narrow-spectrum antibacterial agents. MedChemComm 9, 12–21 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brüssow, H. Problems with the concept of gut microbiota dysbiosis. Microb. Biotechnol. 13, 423–434 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fassarella, M. et al. Gut microbiome stability and resilience: elucidating the response to perturbations in order to modulate gut health. Gut 70, 595–605 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lange, K., Buerger, M., Stallmach, A. & Bruns, T. Effects of antibiotics on gut microbiota. Dig. Dis. 34, 260–268 (2016).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gentile, C. L. & Weir, T. L. The gut microbiota at the intersection of diet and human health. Science 362, 776 (2018).

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) Antimicrobial Consumption in the EU/EEA (ESAC-Net) — Annual Epidemiological Report 2022 (ECDC, 2023).

Kapoor, G., Saigal, S. & Elongavan, A. Action and resistance mechanisms of antibiotics: a guide for clinicians. J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol. 33, 300–305 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Durack, J. & Lynch, S. V. The gut microbiome: relationships with disease and opportunities for therapy. J. Exp. Med. 216, 20–40 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sommer, F., Anderson, J. M., Bharti, R., Raes, J. & Rosenstiel, P. The resilience of the intestinal microbiota influences health and disease. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 15, 630–638 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nel Van Zyl, K., Matukane, S. R., Hamman, B. L., Whitelaw, A. C. & Newton-Foot, M. Effect of antibiotics on the human microbiome: a systematic review. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 59, 106502 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ferrer, M., Méndez-García, C., Rojo, D., Barbas, C. & Moya, A. Antibiotic use and microbiome function. Biochem. Pharmacol. 134, 114–126 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed