Abeysekera DTDJ, Kaiyoom SAA, Dissanayake SU. Place of peritoneal dialysis in the management of renal failure patients admitted to General Hospital Kandy. In: Kandy Society of Medicine 18th Annual Academic Conference. 1996.

Google Scholar 

Ranasinghe AV, Kumara GWGP, Karunarathna RH, et al. The incidence, prevalence and trends of Chronic Kidney Disease and Chronic Kidney Disease of uncertain aetiology (CKDu) in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka: an analysis of 30,566 patients. BMC Nephrol. 2019;20:338.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jayatilake N, Mendis S, Maheepala P, Mehta FR. Chronic kidney disease of uncertain aetiology: prevalence and causative factors in a developing country. BMC Nephrol. 2013;14:180.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jayasumana C, Gunatilake S, Senanayake P. Glyphosate, hard water and nephrotoxic metals: are they the culprits behind the epidemic of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11:2125–47.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jayasumana C, Gajanayake R, Siribaddana S. Importance of arsenic and pesticides in epidemic chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka. BMC Nephrol. 2014;15:124.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chandrajith R, Nanayakkara S, Itai K, et al. Chronic kidney diseases of uncertain etiology (CKDue) in Sri Lanka: geographic distribution and environmental implications. Environ Geochem Health. 2011;33:267–78.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wanigasuriya KP, Peiris-John RJ, Wickremasinghe R. Chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology in Sri Lanka: is cadmium a likely cause? BMC Nephrol. 2011;12:32.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Herath C, Jayasumana C, De Silva PMCS, De Silva PHC, Siribaddana S, De Broe ME. Kidney diseases in agricultural communities: A case against heat-stress nephropathy. Kidney Int Rep. 2018;3:271–80.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Manage PM. Cyanotoxins: A hidden cause of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka – A review. Sri Lanka J Aquat Sci. 2019;24(1):1–10.

Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

Ranasinghe HRALN, Lokuge LDMN, Edirisinghe JC, Bandara L. Water treatment, preventive measures and the chronic kidney disease in the farming community in Sri Lanka. J Agric Sci-Sri Lanka. 2015;10:98–108.

Google Scholar 

De Silva MWA. Drinking water and CKD of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka: A community perspective. Ann Nutr Metab. 2020;76(suppl 1):37–42.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Imbulana S, Oguma K, Takizawa S. Evaluation of groundwater quality and reverse osmosis water treatment plants in the endemic areas of Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. Sci Total Environ. 2020;745:140716.

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cooray T, Wei Y, Zhong H, Zheng L, Weragoda SK, Weerasooriya R. Assessment of groundwater quality in CKDu affected areas of Sri Lanka: implications for drinking water treatment. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(10):1698.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wimalawansa SJ. Effect of water hardness on non-communicable diseases, including chronic kidney disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo/CKDuo). J Environ Health Sci. 2016;2(1):1–11.

Article  Google Scholar 

Imbulana S, Oguma K, Yakizawa S. Evaluation of ground water quality and reverse osmosis water treatment plants in the endemic areas of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. Sci Total Environ. 2020;745:140716.

Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Horbulyk T, Kafle K, Balasubramanya S. Community response to the provision of alternative water supplies: A focus on chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu) in rural Sri Lanka. Water International. 2021;46(1):37–58.

Article  Google Scholar 

De Silva MWA. Drinking water and chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology in Anuradhapura. Sri Lanka Anthropology & Medicine. 2019;26(3):311–27.

Article  Google Scholar 

Levey AS, Eckardt KU, Tsukamoto Y, et al. Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: a position statement from kidney disease: improving global outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int. 2005;67:2089–100.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Zhang Y, Castro A III. New equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150(9):604–12.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization. Expert Consultation on Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology. 2016.

Google Scholar 

Palihawadana P, Hewage R, Maathu S, et al. Screening Guidelines, Chronic Kidney Disease of Sri Lanka 2017. 2nd ed. Colombo: Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health; 2017.

Google Scholar 

Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka 2011. Colombo: Department of Census and Statistics. 2012.

Ruwanpathirana T, Senanayake S, Gunawardana N, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for impaired kidney function in the district of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional population-representative survey in those at risk of chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology. BMC Public Health. 2019;19:763.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rannan-Eliya RP, Wijemunige N, Perera P, et al. Prevalence of diabetes and pre-diabetes in Sri Lanka: a new global hotspot–estimates from the Sri Lanka Health and Ageing Survey 2018/2019. BMJ Open Diab Res Care. 2023;11:e003160.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Senanayake S, Ruwanpathirana T, Gunawardena N. Hypertension in a rural community in Sri Lanka: prevalence, associated factors and its effect on the renal profile. J Hypertens. 2019;37(9):1805–12.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Athuraliya TN, Abeysekera DT, Amerasinghe PH, Kumarasiri PV, Dissanayake V. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in two tertiary care hospitals: high proportion of cases with uncertain aetiology. Ceylon Med J. 2009;54(1):23–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bu LK, Jia PP, Li WG, Li YZ, Li TY, Pei DS. Probiotics mitigate kidney damage after exposure to Sri Lanka’s local groundwater from chronic kidney disease with uncertain etiology (CKDu) prevalent area in zebrafish. Aquat Toxicol. 2023;262:106671.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Athuraliya NT, Abeysekera TD, Amerasinghe PH, et al. Uncertain etiologies of proteinuric-chronic kidney disease in rural Sri Lanka. Kidney Int. 2011;80(11):1212–21.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nanayakkara S, Komiya T, Ratnatunga N, et al. Tubulointerstitial damage as the major pathological lesion in endemic chronic kidney disease among farmers in North Central Province of Sri Lanka. Environ Health Prev Med. 2012;17:213–21.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nanayakkara S, Senevirathna ST, Karunaratne U, et al. Evidence of tubular damage in the very early stage of chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study. Environ Health Prev Med. 2012;17:109–17.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Glaser J, Lemery J, Rajagopalan B, et al. Climate change and the emergent epidemic of CKD from heat stress in rural communities: the case for heat stress nephropathy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;11:1472–83.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Roncal-Jimenez C, Lanaspa MA, Jensen T, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ. Mechanisms by which dehydration may lead to chronic kidney disease. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66(suppl 3):10–3.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ramirez-Rubio O, McClean MD, Amador JJ, Brooks DR. An epidemic of chronic kidney disease in Central America: an overview. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2013;67:1–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abraham G, Agarwal SK, Gowrishankar S, Vijayan M. Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology: hotspots in India and other Asian countries. Nephrol. 2019;39(3):272–7.

Google Scholar 

Madero M, Aguilar D, Rana A, Escobar A, Villa A, Obrador G. Decreased kidney function among rural population in Tierra Blanca Mexico: a cross-sectional study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;28:529.

Google Scholar 

El Minshawy O. End-stage renal disease in the El-Minia Governorate, upper Egypt: an epidemiological study. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2011;22(5):1048–54.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hassen W, Abid S, Achours A, Maaroufi K, Creppy EE, Bacha H. Ochratoxin A and human nephropathy in Tunisia: a ten years survey Annales de Toxicology. Analitique. 2003;15(1):21–9.

Google Scholar 

Pearce N, Caplin B. Let’s take the heat out of the CKDu debate: more evidence is needed. Occup Environ Med. 2019;76(6):357–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wesseling C, Glaser J, Rodríguez-Guzmán J, et al. Chronic kidney disease of non-traditional origin in Mesoamerica: a disease primarily driven by occupational heat stress. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2020;44:e15.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

John O, Gummudi B, Jha A, et al. Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology in India: What Do We Know and Where We Need to Go. Kidney Int Rep. 2021;6(11):2743–51.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Campese VM. The unresolved epidemic of chronic kidney disease of uncertain origin (CKDu) around the world: a review and new insights. Clinical Nephrology. 2021;95(2):65.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar