Magliano DJ, Boyko EJ, IDF Diabetes Atlas Committee. IDF Diabetes Atlas. IDF diabetes atlas. Brussels: International Diabetes Federation © International Diabetes Federation, 2021.

Chung WK, Erion K, Florez JC, Hattersley AT, Hivert MF, Lee CG, et al. Precision medicine in diabetes: a consensus report from the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetes Care. 2020;43(7):1617–35.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kirwan JA, Brennan L, Broadhurst D, Fiehn O, Cascante M, Dunn WB, et al. Preanalytical Processing and biobanking procedures of biological samples for metabolomics research: a white paper, Community Perspective (for “Precision Medicine and Pharmacometabolomics Task Group”-The Metabolomics Society Initiative). Clin Chem. 2018;64(8):1158–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Peakman TC, Elliott P. The UK Biobank sample handling and storage validation studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2008;37(Suppl 1):i2-6.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Altobelli E, Chiarelli F, Valenti M, Verrotti A, Blasetti A, Di Orio F. Family history and risk of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a population-based case-control study. Acta Diabetol. 1998;35(1):57–60.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Seaquist ER, Goetz FC, Rich S, Barbosa J. Familial clustering of diabetic kidney disease. Evidence for genetic susceptibility to diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1989;320(18):1161–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Earle K, Walker J, Hill C, Viberti G. Familial clustering of cardiovascular disease in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(10):673–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tuomilehto J, Borch-Johnsen K, Molarius A, Forsen T, Rastenyte D, Sarti C, et al. Incidence of cardiovascular disease in Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic subjects with and without diabetic nephropathy in Finland. Diabetologia. 1998;41(7):784–90.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cole JB, Florez JC. Genetics of diabetes mellitus and diabetes complications. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2020;16(7):377–90.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hara K, Shojima N, Hosoe J, Kadowaki T. Genetic architecture of type 2 diabetes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2014;452(2):213–20.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chan JC, So W, Ma RC, Tong PC, Wong R, Yang X. The complexity of vascular and non-vascular complications of diabetes: the Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Curr Cardiovasc Risk Rep. 2011;5(3):230–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chan JCN, Lim LL, Luk AOY, Ozaki R, Kong APS, Ma RCW, et al. From Hong Kong Diabetes Register to JADE Program to RAMP-DM for Data-Driven Actions. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(11):2022–31.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li JK, Ng MC, So WY, Chiu CK, Ozaki R, Tong PC, et al. Phenotypic and genetic clustering of diabetes and metabolic syndrome in Chinese families with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2006;22(1):46–52.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang Y, Luk AOY, Chow E, Ko GTC, Chan MHM, Ng M, et al. High risk of conversion to diabetes in first-degree relatives of individuals with young-onset type 2 diabetes: a 12-year follow-up analysis. Diabet Med. 2017;34(12):1701–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ng MC, So WY, Cox NJ, Lam VK, Cockram CS, Critchley JA, et al. Genome-wide scan for type 2 diabetes loci in Hong Kong Chinese and confirmation of a susceptibility locus on chromosome 1q21-q25. Diabetes. 2004;53(6):1609–13.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ng MC, Lam VK, Tam CH, Chan AW, So WY, Ma RC, et al. Association of the POU class 2 homeobox 1 gene (POU2F1) with susceptibility to Type 2 diabetes in Chinese populations. Diabet Med. 2010;27(12):1443–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ma RC, Hu C, Tam CH, Zhang R, Kwan P, Leung TF, et al. Genome-wide association study in a Chinese population identifies a susceptibility locus for type 2 diabetes at 7q32 near PAX4. Diabetologia. 2013;56(6):1291–305.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cho YS, Chen CH, Hu C, Long J, Ong RT, Sim X, et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies identifies eight new loci for type 2 diabetes in east Asians. Nat Genet. 2011;44(1):67–72.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ng MC, Park KS, Oh B, Tam CH, Cho YM, Shin HD, et al. Implication of genetic variants near TCF7L2, SLC30A8, HHEX, CDKAL1, CDKN2A/B, IGF2BP2, and FTO in type 2 diabetes and obesity in 6,719 Asians. Diabetes. 2008;57(8):2226–33.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Noble JA, Erlich HA. Genetics of type 1 diabetes. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(1):a007732.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Robertson CC, Rich SS. Genetics of type 1 diabetes. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2018;50:7–16.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Quattrin T, Mastrandrea LD, Walker LSK. Type 1 diabetes. Lancet. 2023;401(10394):2149–62.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Barrett JC, Clayton DG, Concannon P, Akolkar B, Cooper JD, Erlich HA, et al. Genome-wide association study and meta-analysis find that over 40 loci affect risk of type 1 diabetes. Nat Genet. 2009;41(6):703–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Onengut-Gumuscu S, Chen WM, Burren O, Cooper NJ, Quinlan AR, Mychaleckyj JC, et al. Fine mapping of type 1 diabetes susceptibility loci and evidence for colocalization of causal variants with lymphoid gene enhancers. Nat Genet. 2015;47(4):381–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Robertson CC, Inshaw JRJ, Onengut-Gumuscu S, Chen WM, Santa Cruz DF, Yang H, et al. Fine-mapping, trans-ancestral and genomic analyses identify causal variants, cells, genes and drug targets for type 1 diabetes. Nat Genet. 2021;53(7):962–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ge Y, Onengut-Gumuscu S, Quinlan AR, Mackey AJ, Wright JA, Buckner JH, et al. Targeted deep sequencing in multiple-affected sibships of European Ancestry identifies rare deleterious variants in PTPN22 that confer risk for type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2016;65(3):794–802.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fuchsberger C, Flannick J, Teslovich TM, Mahajan A, Agarwala V, Gaulton KJ, et al. The genetic architecture of type 2 diabetes. Nature. 2016;536(7614):41–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ingelsson E, McCarthy MI. Human genetics of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus: past, present, and future. Circ Genom Precis Med. 2018;11(6):e002090.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Prasad RB, Groop L. Genetics of type 2 diabetes-pitfalls and possibilities. Genes (Basel). 2015;6(1):87–123.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Suzuki K, Hatzikotoulas K, Southam L, Taylor HJ, Yin X, Lorenz KM, et al. Multi-ancestry genome-wide study in >2.5 million individuals reveals heterogeneity in mechanistic pathways of type 2 diabetes and complications. medRxiv. 2023.

Wainschtein P, Jain D, Zheng Z, Group TOAW Consortium NT-OfPM Cupples LA, et al. Assessing the contribution of rare variants to complex trait heritability from whole-genome sequence data. Nat Genet. 2022;54(3):263–73.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mahajan A, Wessel J, Willems SM, Zhao W, Robertson NR, Chu AY, et al. Refining the accuracy of validated target identification through coding variant fine-mapping in type 2 diabetes. Nat Genet. 2018;50(4):559–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Flannick J, Mercader JM, Fuchsberger C, Udler MS, Mahajan A, Wessel J, et al. Exome sequencing of 20,791 cases of type 2 diabetes and 24,440 controls. Nature. 2019;570(7759):71–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

DiCorpo D, Gaynor SM, Russell EM, Westerman KE, Raffield LM, Majarian TD, et al. Whole genome sequence association analysis of fasting glucose and fasting insulin levels in diverse cohorts from the NHLBI TOPMed program. Commun Biol. 2022;5(1):756.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rothman KJ, Greenland S. Causation and causal inference in epidemiology. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(Suppl 1):S144–50.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med. 1965;58(5):295–300.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar