Carlson CJ, Kracalik IT, Ross N, Alexander KA, Hugh-Jones ME, Fegan M, et al. The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4(8):1337–43.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Carlson CJ, Getz WM, Kausrud KL, Cizauskas CA, Blackburn JK, Bustos Carrillo FA, et al. Spores and soil from six sides: interdisciplinarity and the environmental biology of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis). Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2018;93(4):1813–31.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Swartz MN. Recognition and management of anthrax–an update. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(22):1621–6.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sweeney DA, Hicks CW, Cui X, Li Y, Eichacker PQ. Anthrax infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;184(12):1333–41.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aceng FL, Ario AR, Alitubeera PH, Neckyon MM, Kadobera D, Sekamatte M, et al. Cutaneous anthrax associated with handling carcasses of animals that died suddenly of unknown cause: Arua District, Uganda, January 2015-August 2017. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15(8): e0009645.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blackburn JK, Kenu E, Asiedu-Bekoe F, Sarkodie B, Kracalik IT, Bower WA, et al. High case-fatality rate for human anthrax, Northern Ghana, 2005–2016. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27(4):1216–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dhliwayo TH, Chonzi P, Madembo C, Juru TP, Chadambuka A, Gombe NT, et al. Anthrax outbreak investigation in Tengwe, Mashonaland West Province, Zimbabwe, 2022. PLoS ONE. 2022;17(12): e0278537.

Article  Google Scholar 

Otieno FT, Gachohi J, Gikuma-Njuru P, Kariuki P, Oyas H, Canfield SA, et al. Modeling the spatial distribution of anthrax in southern Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15(3): e0009301.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nana SD, Caffin JH, Duboz R, Antoine-Moussiaux N, Binot A, Diagbouga PS, et al. Towards an integrated surveillance of zoonotic diseases in Burkina Faso: the case of anthrax. BMC Public Health. 2022;22(1):1535.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Romero-Alvarez D, Peterson AT, Salzer JS, Pittiglio C, Shadomy S, Traxler R, et al. Potential distributions of Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis causing anthrax in Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14(3): e0008131.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ashenefe Wassie B, Fantaw S, Mekonene Y, Teshale AM, Yitagesu Y, Tsige E, et al. First PCR confirmed anthrax outbreaks in Ethiopia-Amhara region, 2018–2019. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16(2): e0010181.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blackburn JK, Odugbo MO, Van Ert M, O’Shea B, Mullins J, Perrenten V, et al. Bacillus anthracis diversity and geographic potential across Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad: further support of a novel West African lineage. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(8): e0003931.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Adeleke AA, Fasomoyin OO, Adekunle KA. Cutaneous anthrax in Kamakwie, Karene District, Northern Sierra Leone. J Case Report: Clin Med. 2020;3(1):145.

Google Scholar 

Van Ert MN, Easterday WR, Huynh LY, Okinaka RT, Hugh-Jones ME, Ravel J, et al. Global genetic population structure of Bacillus anthracis. PLoS ONE. 2007;2(5): e461.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lista F, Faggioni G, Valjevac S, Ciammaruconi A, Vaissaire J, le Doujet C, et al. Genotyping of Bacillus anthracis strains based on automated capillary 25-loci multiple locus variable-number tandem repeats analysis. BMC Microbiol. 2006;6:33.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bruce SA, Schiraldi NJ, Kamath PL, Easterday WR, Turner WC. A classification framework for Bacillus anthracis defined by global genomic structure. Evol Appl. 2020;13(5):935–44.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

McLaughlin HP, Bugrysheva JV, Conley AB, Gulvik CA, Cherney B, Kolton CB, et al. Rapid Nanopore whole genome sequencing for anthrax emergency preparedness. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(2):358–61.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Pearson T, Busch JD, Ravel J, Read TD, Rhoton SD, U’Ren JM, et al. Phylogenetic discovery bias in Bacillus anthracis using single-nucleotide polymorphisms from whole-genome sequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101(37):13536–41.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Abdel-Glil MY, Chiaverini A, Garofolo G, Fasanella A, Parisi A, Harmsen D, et al. A whole-genome-based gene-by-gene typing system for standardized high-resolution strain typing of Bacillus anthracis. J Clin Microbiol. 2021;59(7): e0288920.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pullan ST, Pearson TR, Latham J, Mason J, Atkinson B, Silman NJ, et al. Whole-genome sequencing investigation of animal-skin-drum-associated UK anthrax cases reveals evidence of mixed populations and relatedness to a US case. Microb Genom. 2015;1(5): e000039.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bassy O, Antwerpen M, Ortega-Garcia MV, Ortega-Sanchez MJ, Bouzada JA, Cabria-Ramos JC, et al. Spanish outbreak isolates bridge phylogenies of European and American Bacillus anthracis. Microorganisms. 2023;11(4):889.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sahl JW, Pearson T, Okinaka R, Schupp JM, Gillece JD, Heaton H, et al. A Bacillus anthracis genome sequence from the Sverdlovsk 1979 autopsy specimens. MBio. 2016;7(5):e01501-e1516.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rouli L, Robert C, Ndiaye M, La Scola B, Raoult D. Genomic analysis of three African strains of Bacillus anthracis demonstrates that they are part of the clonal expansion of an exclusively pathogenic bacterium. New Microbes New Infect. 2014;2(6):161–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Pilo P, Rossano A, Bamamga H, Abdoulkadiri S, Perreten V, Frey J. Bovine Bacillus anthracis in Cameroon. Appl Environ Microb. 2011;77(16):5818–21.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Maho A, Rossano A, Hachler H, Holzer A, Schelling E, Zinsstag J, et al. Antibiotic susceptibility and molecular diversity of Bacillus anthracis strains in Chad: detection of a new phylogenetic subgroup. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(9):3422–5.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tamborrini M, Bauer M, Bolz M, Maho A, Oberli MA, Werz DB, et al. Identification of an African Bacillus anthracis lineage that lacks expression of the spore surface-associated anthrose-containing oligosaccharide. J Bacteriol. 2011;193(14):3506–11.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Klee SR, Ozel M, Appel B, Boesch C, Ellerbrok H, Jacob D, et al. Characterization of Bacillus anthracis-like bacteria isolated from wild great apes from Cote d’Ivoire and Cameroon. J Bacteriol. 2006;188(15):5333–44.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Leendertz FH, Yumlu S, Pauli G, Boesch C, Couacy-Hymann E, Vigilant L, et al. A new Bacillus anthracis found in wild chimpanzees and a gorilla from west and central Africa. PLoS Pathog. 2006;2(1):1–4.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Centrifuge [Available from: http://ccb.jhu.edu/software/centrifuge/. Accessed 15 Jul 2023.

Ellerbrok H, Nattermann H, Ozel M, Beutin L, Appel B, Pauli G. Rapid and sensitive identification of pathogenic and apathogenic Bacillus anthracis by real-time PCR. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2002;214(1):51–9.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Antwerpen MH, Zimmermann P, Bewley K, Frangoulidis D, Meyer H. Real-time PCR system targeting a chromosomal marker specific for Bacillus anthracis. Mol Cell Probe. 2008;22(5–6):313–5.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Brangsch H, Golovko A, Pinchuk N, Deriabin O, Kyselova T, Linde J, et al. Molecular typing of Ukrainian Bacillus anthracis strains by combining whole-genome sequencing techniques. Microorganisms. 2022;10(2):461.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lienemann T, Beyer W, Pelkola K, Rossow H, Rehn A, Antwerpen M, et al. Genotyping and phylogenetic placement of Bacillus anthracis isolates from Finland, a country with rare anthrax cases. BMC Microbiol. 2018;18(1):102.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bankevich A, Nurk S, Antipov D, Gurevich AA, Dvorkin M, Kulikov AS, et al. SPAdes: a new genome assembly algorithm and its applications to single-cell sequencing. J Comput Biol. 2012;19(5):455–77.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Li H, Handsaker B, Wysoker A, Fennell T, Ruan J, Homer N, et al. The sequence alignment/map format and SAMtools. Bioinformatics. 2009;25(16):2078–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Walker BJ, Abeel T, Shea T, Priest M, Abouelliel A, Sakthikumar S, et al. Pilon: an integrated tool for comprehensive microbial variant detection and genome assembly improvement. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(11): e112963.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central